H 


THE  SMALL 
COUKTKX  PLACE 


SAMUEL  T.  M&YNKKD 


THE  SMALL 
COUNTRY   PLACE 


THE  SMALL 
COUNTRY  PLACE 


BY 


SAMUEL  T.  MAYNARD 

f/ 

PROFESSOR  OF  BOTANY  AND  HORTICULTURE  AT  THE  MASSACHUSETTS 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  ;  BOTANIST  AND  POMOLOGIST  TO  THE 

MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE,  ETC.; 

AUTHOR  OF  "LANDSCAPE  GARDENING  AS  AP- 
PLIED TO  HOME  DECORATION,"  "SUC- 
CESSFUL FRUIT  CULTURE,"  ETC. 


ONE  HUNDRED  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 

1908 


6 


COPYRIGHT,  1908 
BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


Published  May,  1908 


Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  SUBURBAN  HOME 13 

Advantages  of  Living  in  the  Country ;  Farming  and  Gar- 
dening for  Pleasure  or  as  a  Business;  The  Home  Owner 
and  Home  Seeker;  Where  Shall  We  Look  for  New 
Homes?  Important  Points  to  Consider:  i.  Healthful 
and  Pleasant  Surroundings;  2.  Good  Schools  and 
Churches;  3.  Congenial  Social  and  Political  Conditions; 
4.  Suitable  Soil  and  Exposure;  5.  Suitable  Buildings; 
6.  What  are  the  Markets?  7.  Good  Roads;  8.  Is  there 
Woodland  on  the  Place?  9.  The  Capital  Required. 
Summary. 

CHAPTER  II 

REMODELLING  AND  IMPROVING  OLD  BUILDINGS 31 

First  Make  Buildings  Healthful;  Examine  Sills;  Roofs 
and  Gutters;  Shingles;  Asphalt  Roofing;  Iron  and 
Steel  Roofing;  Inside  Conveniences;  The  Purity  of  the 
Water  Supply;  Sanitation;  Improvement  of  Build- 
ings; The  Tool  House;  Farming  Tools;  Poultry 
Houses;  Barn,  Stable  and  Carriage  House,  etc.;  Shin- 
gling Old  Buildings;  Painting  Old  Buildings;  Time  to 
Paint;  Kinds  of  Paint;  Brushes  and  Painting. 

CHAPTER  III 
BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES 52 

PART  I. 

Building  Associations;  A  Definite  Plan;  Contract  and 
Day  Labor;  The  Most  Important  Points:  Location; 
An  Abundance  of  Windows;  The  Water  Supply; 
Houses  of  Wood;  The  Frame;  Cover  Boards;  Shin- 
gles; Finish;  Floor  Boards;  Finishing  Floors. 

5 


271661 


CONTENTS 


PART  II. 

Brick,  Stone  and  Cement  Houses:  Brick  Houses; 
Houses  of  Stone;  Cement  Buildings;  Solid  Walls; 
The  Block  System;  The  Cement  and  Sand;  Mixing 
Cement  and  Sand;  Cement  for  Outbuildings;  Cement 
for  Floors  and  Walks;  Heating  Country  Houses:  Hot- 
Water  Heat,  Hot-Air  Heat,  Steam  Heat. 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS 73 

Preserve  all  Naturally  Beautiful  Features;  Time  for 
Pruning  Trees;  Some  of  the  Best  Street  and  Avenue 
Trees;  Home  Decoration;  Grading  About  the  Build- 
ing; Roads  and  Walks;  Underdraining  Road-bed; 
Concrete  Drives  and  Walks;  Planting  Trees  and 
Shrubs;  Where  to  Obtain  Ornamentals;  Time  for 
Planting;  Planting  Evergreens;  Arrangement  of  Trees 
and  Shrubs;  Fruit  Trees  as  Ornamentals;  List  of 
Trees;  Ornamental  Shrubs;  Grouping  Shrubs ;  Pruning 
Shrubs;  List  of  Shrubs;  Climbing  Shrubs;  Removing 
Walls  and  Fences. 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN 98 

The  Lawn;  Lawn  Grasses;  Time  for  Sowing  Seed; 
Seeding  Lawns;  Weeds  in  Lawn;  Water  a  Necessity; 
Improving  Old  Lawns;  Lawn  Mowers  and  Their  Care; 
The  Flower  Garden;  Cultivation  of  Wild  Flowers; 
Lawn  Perennials;  Lawn  Annuals  and  Bedding  Plants; 
Biennials;  Dutch  Bulbs;  Winter  Protection  for  Hardy 
Plants;  Window  and  Veranda  Plants. 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  FAMILY  GARDEN 117 

Soil  and  Exposure ;  Mixed  Planting;  Plans  of  Gardens ; 
Fruit  Trees  in  Turf ;  Cultivation  of  the  Family  Garden ; 
Summer  Fertilization;  Cold  Frames  and  Hot-Beds; 
Starting  Seeds;  Poultry  and  the  Family  Garden. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

FRUIT  GROWING 130 

Equipment  Required;  Fruit  Growing  as  a  Business; 
Best  Soil  for  the  Apple ;  Selection  and  Arrangement  of 
Trees;  Cultivation;  A  Cover  Crop;  Cost  of  an  Apple 
Orchard;  Apple  Trees  in  Turf;  Renovating  Old  Trees; 
Pruning  Fruit  Trees;  Varieties;  Harvesting  the  Apple 
Crop;  Insect  Pests;  Dwarf  Apples. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE    PEARS,    PEACHES,    QUINCES,  PLUMS,    APRICOTS    AND 

NECTARINES 156 

The  Pear:  Kinds  of  Trees;  Renovating  Old  Trees; 
Varieties;  Harvesting  the  Fruit;  Insects  Injurious  to 
the  Pear;  Fungous  Pests.  The  Peach:  Pruning  for 
Planting;  Marketing  Peaches;  Varieties  of  the  Peach; 
Insects  Injurious  to  the  Peach;  Fungous  Pests.  The 
Quince:  Selection  of  Quince  Trees;  Marketing 
Quinces;  Insects  and  Diseases.  The  Plum:  Fungous 
Diseases  of  the  Plum;  Varieties;  Marketing  Plums. 
The  Apricot:  Varieties;  Cultivation.  The  Nectarine: 
Cultivation;  Varieties.  The  Cherry:  Cultivation; 
Varieties;  Marketing;  Insect  and  Fungous  Pests. 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  GRAPE 182 

Propagation;  Pruning;  Cultivation  and  Fertilization; 
Varieties;  Marketing;  Girdling;  Insect  and  Fungous 
Pests. 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  BUSH  FRUITS 198 

Propagation  of  the  Raspberry  and  the  Blackberry;  Cul- 
tivation; Insects  and  Diseases;  Varieties.  The  Cur- 
rant: Propagation  and  Cultivation;  Varieties;  Insect 
and  Fungous  Pests.  The  Gooseberry:  Cultivation; 
Varieties.  The  Strawberry:  Methods  of  Planting; 
Winter  Protection;  Harvesting  the  Fruit;  Varieties; 
Insect  and  Fungous  Pests. 


8  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI 

MARKET  GARDENING 216 

General  Observations  and  Directions;  Fitting  the 
Land;  Planting;  Asparagus;  Beans:  Varieties; 
Beets:  Varieties;  Cabbages,  Cauliflowers,  Brussels 
Sprouts,  etc.:  Cultivation;  Varieties;  Carrots:  Cul- 
tivation; Varieties;  Celery:  Cultivation;  Varieties; 
Sweet  Corn:  Cultivation;  Varieties;  Lettuce:  Culti- 
vation; Varieties;  Melons:  Cultivation;  Varieties; 
Onions:  Cultivation;  Varieties;  Peas:  Cultivation; 
Varieties;  Potatoes:  Cultivation;  Varieties;  Rhu- 
barb; Squashes:  Cultivation;  Varieties;  Tomatoes: 
Cultivation;  Varieties;  Turnips:  Cultivation;  Varieties. 

CHAPTER  XII 

POULTRY  KEEPING 241 

General  Observations  and  Directions;  Location;  Poul- 
try Houses;  Care  of  the  Fowls;  Raising  Chickens; 
Feed;  Production  of  Eggs;  Roosts;  Nests;  Breeds  of 
Poultry;  Pigeons. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

DAIRYING,  THE  FAMILY  HORSE,  AND  BEES 257 

General  Observations;  Milking;  Keeping  the  Milk; 
Breeding;  Dairying;  The  Milk  Supply;  Keeping  up  the 
Standard;  Purity;  Raising  Calves;  Selecting  the 
Family  Cow;  The  Family  Horse;  The  Stable;  Water- 
ing; Carriages  and  Harnesses;  Bees:  The  Apiary; 
The  Hives;  Surplus  Honey;  Swarming. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

MONTHLY  CALENDAR 270 

Directions  for  each  Month's  Work:  The  Land;  Build- 
ings; Stock;  Roads  and  Walks ;  The  Lawn;  Trees  and 
Shrubs;  The  Flower  Garden;  Greenhouses  and  Sash; 
The  Vegetable  Garden;  The  Vineyard;  Small  Fruits; 
Fertilizers;  Seeds;  Poultry;  Bees,  etc. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Fig.  i       A  Beautiful  Country  Home Frontispiece 

Fig.  2       A  Cottage  Home  Valued  at  $1200 21 

Fig.  3       A  Cottage  Home  Valued  at  $800 27 

Fig.  4a     A  Cottage  House  Before  Remodelling 33 

Fig.  4b     A  Cottage  House  After  Remodelling 33 

Fig.   5       A  Trap  to  Prevent  Escape  of   Sewer  Gas  From 

Cesspools,  etc 37 

Fig.  6      A  Handy  Tool-Room  or  Work-Shop 40 

Fig.  7       The  Tool- Room.     Farm  Tools  Hung  on  the  Walls 

of  the  Barn  Basement s .  . .  .  41 

Fig.  8      A  Modern  Poultry  House  with  Scratching  Shed  .  .  43 
Fig.  9       A  Modern  System  of  Ventilating  Stables,  Poultry 

Houses,  etc • 45 

Fig.  jo     A   Small  Shingled  Building  Covered  with  Vines; 

Grapevine  above,  Nasturtiums  below    46 

Fig.   ii     A  Modern  Shingled  House 48 

Fig.   12     A  Brick  House  in  the  Country 59 

Fig.   13     The  Construction  of  a  Solid-Wall  Concrete  House 

Reinforced  by  Steel  Rods 62 

Fig.  14     A  Stone  Cottage  in  the  Country 63 

Fig.  1 5     Section  of  a  Concrete  Fire-Proof  House  with  Solid 

Walls,  Reinforced  with  Steel  Rods 66 

Fig.   1 6     A  Cement  Concrete  House  made  of  Hollow  Blocks  67 

Fig.  17     A  Machine  for  Making  Hollow  Concrete  Blocks  .  .  68 
Fig.  1 8     A   Tall    Young  Tree  Showing  Where   to  Cut  to 

Make  it  Branch  Low 74 

Fig.  19     A  Norway  Spruce  Tree  With  Leading  Shoot  Cut 

off  to  Force  Growth  into  the  Lower  Branches  7  5 

Fig.  20    The  Result  of  Cutting  off  the  Leading  Shoot  ....  75 
Fig.  21     Forked   Branch   of   Tree    Broken   Down  by  Ice, 

Repaired  and  Supported  by  Iron  Rod 76 

Fig.  22     A  Perfect  Purple-Leaf  Beech  Tree,  the  Result  of  a 

Good  Soil,  a  Northern  Exposure  and  Plenty 

of  Room 77 

Fig.  23     The  Location  of  Drives  and  Walks 80 

Fig.  24     Another  Plan  of  Drives  and  Walks 80 


1O  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  25  How  to  Lay  Out  Drives  and  Walks 80 

Fig.  26  Section  of  Road  With  Tile  upon  the  Upper  Side 

Only 81 

Fig.  27  Section  of  Road  With  Drain  Tile  on  Both  Sides.  .  81 
Fig.  28  Trees  and  Shrubs  Appropriately  Arranged  on  the 

Lawn  and  in  Front  of  the  Dwelling 91 

Fig.  29  Low  Shrubs  Arranged  in  Front  of  the  Tall  Ones  .  93 

Fig.  30  A  Beautiful  Shingled  Summer  House 95 

Fig.  31  A  Rose-Covered  Porch 96 

Fig.  32  Just  Coming  From  the  Flower  Garden 103 

Fig.  33  Native  Shrubs  and  Ferns  Arranged  With  Build- 
ing for  Background 107 

Fig.  34  How  Peony  and  Other  Herbaceous  Perennial 

Roots  are  Divided  for  Transplanting no 

Fig.  35  The  Flower  Garden;  Bulbs  in  Bloom  in  Spring  .  .  n  i 

Fig.  36  Plan  of  Garden  and  Grounds 119 

Fig.  37  Plan  of  Garden  of  Fruit,  Flowers  and  Vegetables  120 

Fig.  38  Plan  of  Garden  of  Fruit  and  Vegetables 121 

Fig.  39  Mixed  Garden  and  Farm  Crops 122 

Fig.  40  The  Author's  "Weed- Killer."  Note  the  Wheel  Hoe, 

Triangular  Hoe,  Rakes  of  two  Widths,  etc.  .  124 

Fig.  4 1  The  Triangular  Hoe ;  How  Made 125 

Fig.  42  Young  Apple  Trees:  (a)  No.  i,  Two -Year -Old 

Tree  Unpruned;  (6),  the  Same  After  Pruning  137 

Fig-  43  A  Tall  Apple  Tree  Before  Pruning 142 

Fig.  44  A  Tall  Apple  Tree  After  Pruning 143 

Fig.  45  A  Tall  Apple  Tree  at  the  End  of  the  First 

Season  After  Pruning 144 

Fig.  46  Grafting:  How  the  Stock  is  Cut  and  Split 145 

Fig.  47  Grafting:  How  the  Scions  are  Cut 145 

Fig.  48  Grafting:  The  Stock  After  the  Wax  Has  Been 

Put  On 146 

Fig.  49  An  Apple  Tree  One  Year  After  Grafting 147 

Fig.  50  An  Apple  Tree  Three  Years  After  Grafting 147 

Fig.  51  An  Old  Orchard  Pruned  From  Below  Only 148 

Fig.  52  An  Old  Orchard  Before  Pruning 148 

Fig.  53  An  Old  Orchard  After  Pruning 149 

Fig.  54  An  Old  Orchard  the  Autumn  After  Pruning 149 

Fig.  55  A  Perfectly  Shaped  Apple  Tree,  Produced  by 

Cutting  in  the  Tops 150 

Fig.  56  A  Convenient  and  Cheap  Ladder  for  Working  on 

Low  Trees 155 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  1 1 

PAGE 

Fig-   57     A   Three -Year  -  Old   Peach   Orchard   in  Summer 

Growth    162 

Fig.   58     A  Peach  Tree  Unpruned  for  Four  Years 163 

Fig.   59     A  Four- Year-Old  Peach  Tree  Before  Pruning  ....  164 

Fig.  60     A  Four- Year-Old  Peach  Tree  After  Pruning 164 

Fig.   6 1     Pear  and  Quince  Trees  and  Blackberries  in  the 

Poultry  Yard 1 69 

Fig.  62     Plum  Trees  over  Thirty  Years  Old 173 

Fig.  63     Currant  Bushes  under  Plum  and  Apricot  Trees  .  .  179 

Fig.   64     A  Small  Vineyard 1 83 

Fig.  65     Stable      Ornamented     by     a     Grapevine     Fifty 

Years  Old  185 

Fig.  66     Single  Grapevine  Pruned  and  Fruiting;  Cane  Tied 

to  the  Top  Wire 187 

Fig.  67     A  Single  Vine  with  Fruit  on  Top  Wire 188 

Fig.  68     Grapevine    in    the    Garden    Unpruned   for   Five 

Years 1 89 

Fig.  69     Grapevine  in  the  Garden  after  Pruning 190 

Fig.  70     Grapevine  in  the  Garden  in  September.     In  full 

Foliage  and  Fruit 191 

Fig.  71  Sprayed  and  Unsprayed  Vines:  First  and  Third 
Vines  Sprayed;  Second  and  Fourth  Un- 
sprayed    195 

Fig.  72     Trellis  with  Cross   Supports   for   Raspberry   and 

Blackberry  Canes 200 

Fig.  73     Trellis  Without  Cross  Supports 200 

Fig.  74     Strawberry  Plants  in  Hills 207 

Fig.  7  5  Strawberry  Field  Planted  in  the  Double  Hedge- 
Row  System 208 

Fig.   76     The  Strawberry  Harvest   211 

Fig.  77     The  Hot-Bed;  Note  Sash,  Mats  and  Shutters  ....  218 

Fig.  78     A  Small  Greenhouse 218 

Fig.  79  Late  Cabbages  Following  Strawberries.  Black- 
berry Field  in  the  Distance 224 

Fig.  80  A  Movable  Summer  Colony-House  for  About 
Fifteen  Hens,  or  a  Larger  Number  of  Chick- 
ens. Open  View 242 

Fig.  8 1     Same  as  Fig.  80.     Closed  View 242 

Fig.  82     Poultry  in  the  Raspberry  Patch 243 

Fig-  83     A.  Modern  Poultry  House  With  Scratching  Shed 

Between  Two  Pens 245 


12  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  84    A  Model  Incubator;    One  of   the   Necessities  for 

Profitable  Poultry  Growing 248 

Fig.  85     A  Model  Brooder.     Where  the  Chickens  are  Kept 

After  Being  Taken  From  the  Incubator  .  .  249 

Fig.  86     Poultry  in  the  Asparagus  Field 251 

Fig.  87     A  Pigeon  Loft 255 

Fig.  88     The  Family  Cow 258 

Fig.  89     The  Family  Horse 265 

Fig.  90     A  Modern  Apiary 267 

Fig.  91     January.     After  School  and  Before  Chores 271 

Fig.  92     Pruning  From  the  Top  Down 273 

Fig.  93     February.     Making  Quick  Work  of  the  Wood-Pile  276 

Fig.  94     March.     Sugaring  Scene  in  Vermont 281 

Fig.  95     May.     The  Beginning  of  the  Strawberry  Crop  ...  290 
Fig.  96    July.     Currants    and    Gooseberries     Ripen    This 

Month 297 

Fig.  97     September.     Harvesting  the  Grape  Crop 304 

Fig.  98     October.     Sorting  and  Packing  Apples 306 

Fig.  99     November.     Raising  Turkeys  Almost  a  Lost  Art .  312 

Fig.  i  oo  December.     A  Christmas  Tree 316 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


CHAPTER    I 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  ;  ADVANTAGES  OF 
LIVING  IN  THE  COUNTRY 


THE  ideal  place  to  live  is  in  the  country,  even 
though  one's  business  is  in  the  city.  In  the 
country  one  is  more  independent,  and  free 
from  much  of  the  formalism  and  many  of  the  whims 
of  modern  society;  and  may  have  elbow  room,  so  to 
speak,  with  pure  fresh  air  on  every  side,  and  quiet 
from  the  constant  interruptions  of  the  crowds  encoun- 
tered in  a  busy  and  bustling  city.  Too  many  of  our 
people  are  crowded  into  the  limited  space  of  the  cities 
and  never  see  the  broad  and  beautiful  fields  and  wooded 
hills,  or  breathe  the  pure  air  that  is  laden  with  the 
rich  perfume  of  the  fields  and  woods.  They  know 
nothing  of  birds  and  flowers,  the  wonders  of  plant 
and  animal  life,  or  the  broadening  effect  of  daily 
contact  with  Nature  in  her  various  moods. 

With  the  modern  methods  of  travel  one  may  live  in 
the  country  and  work  or  attend  to  an  established  busi- 
ness, often  requiring  but  a  few  hours  each  day,  and  have 
the  remaining  time  to  devote  to  the  garden,  growing 
fruits  or  vegetables,  caring  for  poultry,  bees,  etc.  He 
can  thus  have  an  abundance  of  fresh  fruit  and  vege- 
tables, milk,  poultry,  eggs,  etc.,  for  his  own  table,  the 
supply  of  neighbors,  or  the  local  market.  A  small  gar- 
den skilfully  cared  for  may  be  made  to  produce  a  won- 

13 


14  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

derful  amount  of  fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  in  such  a 
condition  as  cannot  be  found  in  the  local  markets;  and 
larger  areas  may  be  profitably  planted  if  one  has  a  little 
capital  and  becomes  skilled  in  growing  garden  crops. 
One  may  keep  the  family  cow  and  horse,  too,  as  family 
pets,  and  the  smaller  pets  (poultry,  dog  or  cat),  with 
both  pleasure  and  profit. 

There  is  no  place  like  the  country  in  which  to  bring 
up  children.  Everywhere  about  them  are  Nature's 
realities,  not  the  narrow  creations  of  man.  They  learn 
to  take  responsibilities,  become  self  reliant  by  the  care 
of  the  cow,  the  horse,  and  the  chickens,  and  by  working 
in  the  garden;  and,  best  of  all,  they  can  be  with  father 
and  mother,  sharing  with  them  the  cares  of  the  house- 
hold, the  sports  of  rural  life,  and  the  pleasures  of  home. 
They  can  have  a  workshop  where  they  may  gain  skill  in 
using  hand  and  eye.  In  the  summer  they  can  have  the 
sports  of  swimming  and  boating,  and  in  winter  coast- 
ing, skating,  and  snow-shoeing  in  the  broad  free  expanse 
of  hill  and  dale. 

Where  the  area  of  land  is  sufficient,  help  may  be  em- 
ployed in  the  garden.  The  man  of  all  work,  who  must 
often  be  kept  about  the  suburban  home,  may  spend 
spare  hours  profitably  in  caring  for  the  garden  crops. 
Many  a  small  village  lot  has  been  made  to  yield  a  con-, 
siderable  income  from  crops  of  lettuce,  cucumbers,  roses, 
carnations,  violets,  etc.,  grown  under  glass;  and  larger 
areas  of  only  a  few  acres  have  produced  income  enough, 
from  outdoor  vegetables  and  fruits,  to  pay  the  necessary 
help  and  yield  a  good  living  to  the  owner. 

The  small  farmer  with  a  few  acres  feels  the  influence 
of  modern  methods,  and  farm  life  is  shorn  of  many  of 
the  trials  and  social  deprivations  of  a  half  century  ago. 
Then  the  farmer  worked  alone,  cultivating  a  small  area 
of  such  crops  as  were  needed  for  home  consumption,  see- 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  15 

ing  little  of  the  world  beyond  the  narrow  circle  about 
him,  living  in  a  barren  little  world  of  his  own.  Today  he 
may  know,  by  means  of  the  daily  paper  and  the  tele- 
phone, what  is  taking  place  in  the  remotest  parts  of  the 
earth;  and  the  quick  methods  of  travel  enable  him  to 
mingle  with  the  crowds  of  the  metropolis  for  business  or 
pleasure.  By  this  association  with  men  under  a  great 
variety  of  conditions  and  close  contact  with  ever-chang- 
ing Nature,  he  becomes  a  broader  and  more  fully  devel- 
oped man  than  is  possible  for  those  who  are  confined  to 
more  routine  work,  doing  the  same  task  day  by  day, 
year  in  and  year  out. 

FARMING  AND  GARDENING  FOR  PLEASURE 
OR  AS  A  BUSINESS. 

Farming  or  gardening  as  a  business  offers  especial  in- 
ducements at  the  present  time.  In  no  other  country 
are  there  so  many  well-to-do  people,  and  the  consump- 
tion of  choice  fruits  and  vegetables  is  steadily  increasing. 
We  have  the  best  home  markets  in  the  world,  and  other 
countries  are  calling  for  our  surplus  products.  Choice 
fruits  and  vegetables  and  all  dairy  products  are  in  de- 
mand at  good  prices,  but  the  growers  of  these  must 
compete  more  or  less  with  the  growers  of  countries 
where  labor  is  cheap  and  conditions  the  most  favorable. 
Tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  are  being  put  into  our 
markets  in  immense  quantities,  and  unless  we  produce 
the  finest  qualities  these  will  be  used  in  preference  to 
home  products.  If  our  people  cannot  obtain  choice 
apples,  grapes,  strawberries,  or  other  native  fruits,  they 
will  buy  bananas,  pineapples,  oranges,  etc.,  which  are 
sold  in  our  markets  at  low  prices. 

With  these  cheap-labor  competitors  producing  fruits 
and  vegetables  that  come  to  our  markets  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  our  farmers  need  to  put  forth  all  their  energy 


16  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

and  skill  to  put  into  the  markets  products  that  will  be 
equal  if  not  superior  to  those  received  from  the  South 
and  other  countries,  often  months  after  they  are  har- 
vested. This  we  can  do.  There  is  no  country  in  the 
world  that  can  produce  better  fruits  (large  and  small) 
and  vegetables  than  ours,  and  most  of  our  more  perish- 
able small  fruits  and  vegetables  can  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  consumer  in  so  much  more  perfect  condi- 
tion than  those  shipped  from  distant  points,  that  choice 
home  products  are  sure  to  be  in  demand  at  good  prices. 
Even  during  the  winter,  at  the  North,  we  may  success- 
fully compete  with  tropical  countries  in  producing, 
under  glass,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  lettuce,  and  other 
hot-house  products. 

The  small  farm  is  often  more  profitable  than  a  large 
one.  Too  many  farmers  are  land  poor,  while  many 
have  made  fortunes  on  a  few  acres. 

The  city  man  with  his  family,  tired  of  the  rush  and 
fever  of  city  life,  may  often  find  desired  rest  and  an 
abundant  support  on  the  small  farm,  if  he  will  give  close 
attention  to  the  work  and  carry  it  on  upon  the  business 
principles  in  vogue  in  the  large  city  enterprises  in  which 
he  was  only  an  insignificant  part.  While  dependent 
upon  his  own  efforts  for  support  he  is  independent  of 
rules  and  restraints  of  exacting  employers  whose  main 
effort  is  to  get  as  much  as  possible  out  of  their  employees 
for  the  smallest  possible  wage. 

THE  HOME  OWNER  AND  HOME  SEEKER. 

The  readers  whom  this  book  is  intended  to  aid  may 
be  grouped  into  (i)  those  seeking  new  homes  for  health, 
pleasanter  surroundings,  and  freedom  from  the  rush  and 
bustle  of  the  city,  and  who  may  not  be  dependent  upon 
the  land  for  their  support;  (2)  those  who  already  own 
small  places  that  they  wish  to  improve  and  make  more 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  17 

profitable;   and  (3)  those  of  both  classes  who  are  wholly 
dependent  upon  their  crops  for  a  livelihood. 

To  the  home  seeker  who  consults  the  lists  of  real  estate 
agents  or  the  advertising  columns  of  the  agricultural 
papers  it  would  seem  that  almost  every  land-owner 
wanted  to  sell.  The  number  of  places  thus  offered  for 
sale  however  is  but  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  desirable 
homes  occupied  by  those  who  do  not  wish  to  sell.  It  is 
true  that  the  rural  population  in  many  sections  changes 
frequently,  often  by  death  of  old  residents,  the  younger 
members  of  the  family  having  gone  to  seek  their  for- 
tunes in  cities,  where  large  enterprises  attract  them. 
Some  fail  in  their  efforts  for  want  of  working  capital  or 
because  of  improperly  directed  labor,  and  try  other 
fields  of  effort.  Among  the  farms  thus  coming  into 
the  market,  now  and  then  may  be  found  an  ideal  place, 
but  the  majority  will  require  capital,  and  often  long,  hard 
work,  to  put  them  into  comfortable  and  profitable  con- 
dition. There  are  in  almost  every  section  of  the  coun- 
try small  places  that  will  make  good  homes  and  may 
be  improved  so  as  to  yield  profitable  returns,  when  con- 
ducted on  intelligent  business  principles. 

WHERE  SHALL  WE  LOOK  FOR  NEW  HOMES? 

Temperament,  health  and  individual  taste  must  deter- 
mine whether  one  should  locate  North  or  South,  East  or 
West.  For  each  location  superior  advantages  will  be 
claimed,  but  there  are  in  every  section  some  special  con- 
ditions which  the  home  seeker  should  consider.  Points 
that  should  have  special  attention  wherever  we  locate  are: 

1.  Healthful  and  pleasant  surroundings. 

2.  Good  schools  and  churches. 

3.  Congenial  social  and  political  conditions. 

4.  Soil   and   exposure   suited  to   the  business  to   be 
'   followed. 


i8  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

5.  Suitable  buildings. 

6.  Accessible  markets. 

7.  Good  roads  and  facilities  for  transporting  produce 
and  getting  to  and  from  centres  of  business  with  which 
one  must  keep  in  touch  for  the  greatest  success. 

8.  Is  there  woodland  on  the  place? 

9.  Capital  required  for  our  enterprises 

i.  Healthful    and    Pleasant    Surroundings. 

The  most  important  question  to  be  answered  in  look- 
ing for  a  home  in  the  country  is,  are  there  any  unhealth- 
ful  conditions  either  about  or  near  the  building?  With- 
out healthful  surroundings  one  can  hardly  expect  good 
health,  without  which  few  will  be  successful  in  business 
or  take  much  pleasure  in  life.  The  house  and  stable 
cellars  should  be  carefully  inspected.  If  the  soil  about 
them  is  springy,  tile  drains  should  be  laid  so  as  to  carry 
off  all  water  that  otherwise  would  settle  into  the  cellars. 
The  location  of  the  stable  cellar,  yard,  or  cesspools,  etc., 
as  related  to  the  water  supply  must  be  studied.  If  within 
two  hundred  feet,  or  in  some  cases  even  further  away, 
the  surface  water  will  certainly  settle  into  these  deep 
basins,  and  become  foul  and  a  menace  to  health.  The 
water  from  long-established  wells,  even  in  the  country, 
is  often  more  dangerous  than  that  from  those  more  re- 
cently made  in  more  thickly  settled  sections.  The  safest 
water  for  family  use  is  that  from  well  aerated  basins,  or 
from  rain-water  from  the  roof  after  being  filtered  through 
brick  or  sand.  Deep  driven  wells  generally  supply  water 
free  from  objectionable  organic  matter,  but  may  contain 
mineral  elements  that  make  the  water  hard  or  more  or 
less  unhealthful.  From  whatever  source  the  water  sup- 
ply comes,  the  only  way  to  be  sure  of  its  purity  and 
healthfulness  is  to  have  samples  analyzed  by  some  board 
of  health  or  experiment  station,  of  which  there  is  one  or 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  19 

more  in  every  state,  where  such  work  is  done  at  a  nom- 
inal cost. 

High  elevations,  where  there  is  good  drainage  of  the 
surface  water  away  from  the  buildings,  should  be  looked 
for,  and  yet  in  northern  sections  the  buildings  should  if 
possible  be  sheltered  by  windbreaks  of  hills  Or  trees 
from  north  and  east  winds.  While  the  mercury  will  not 
go  as  low  upon  hills  of  moderate  height  as  in  the  valleys, 
moving  air  is  more  uncomfortable  than  still  air.  Many 
crops,  too,  succeed  better  when  in  full  exposure  to  air 
and  sunlight  on  our  small  hills.  Low  malarial  locations, 
near  stagnant  streams  and  pools,  should  be  avoided,  for 
no  diseases  are  more  insidious  and  difficult  to  cure  than 
the  germ  diseases  contracted  in  such  localities. 

2.  Are  There  Good  Schools  and  Churches? 

In  selecting  a  home,  I  shall  place  good  schools  and 
churches  next  in  importance  to  healthful  surroundings. 
In  these  days  of  business  strife  and  competition  no  one 
can  expect  to  be  successful  in  the  highest  degree  without 
at  least  a  fair  education;  and  apart  from  its  bearing  on 
business  success  or  failure,  the  educated  man  or  woman 
can  enjoy  more,  and  be  able  to  do  more  good  to  those 
about  them,  than  the  uneducated.  Wherever  we  find 
good  schools,  we  find  intelligent  and  peace-loving  citizens. 
Churches,  too,  are  a  good  index  of  the  moral  conditions 
of  any  community.  While  all  church-goers  are  not 
always  above  reproach  in  their  dealings  with  their  fellow- 
men,  the  average  standard  of  a  church-going  community 
is  far  above  that  of  the  non-church  goers,  and  the  habit 
of  setting  apart  one  day  each  week  for  attendance  upon 
divine  worship,  and  for  home  recreation  with  one's  fam- 
ily, cannot  be  too  earnestly  urged.  The  moral  character 
and  thrift  of  a  community  should  be  fully  studied.  In- 
dustrious people  are  as  a  rule  peaceable  and  contented, 


2O  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

and  those  who  have  their  time  well  occupied  with  their 
own  affairs  have  little  time  in  which  to  make  trouble  for 
others.  A  community  of  thrifty  people  should  be  se- 
lected if  possible.  Wasteful  people  soon  come  to  want, 
and  this  often  leads  to  social  disorders  of  many  kinds. 

3.  A  Congenial  Social  and  Political  Community 
Desirable. 

Man  is  naturally  a  social  being  and  needs  the  associa- 
tion of  his  fellows  in  order  to  reach  his  fullest  develop- 
ment. In  an  uncongenial  community  one  is  inclined 
to  draw  within  oneself,  which  soon  leads  to  egotistical 
and  narrow  views  of  life.  While  much  can  be  done  by 
precept  and  by  personal  example  toward  improving 
social  conditions,  such  efforts  are  likely  to  be  more  fruit- 
ful and  life  is  much  more  enjoyable  in  a  community 
where  the  majority  are  in  sympathy  with  each  other  and 
united  in  their  efforts  to  promote  the  general  welfare.  In 
union  of  effort  there  is  strength. 

4.  What  is  the  Land  Suited  to  Grow  ? 

Before  we  start  out  in  our  efforts  to  improve  the  farm, 
we  must  first  decide  what  lines  of  agriculture  or  horti- 
culture we  are  best  qualified  to  follow,  and  what  the  land 
is  best  suited  to  produce.  The  margin  for  profit  in  grow- 
ing any  of  the  farm  or  garden  crops  is  very  small,  and 
unless  the  soil  and  other  conditions  are  favorable,  and 
the  work  be  skilfully  done,  there  is  sure  to  be  little  profit 
if  not  actual  loss.  If  we  decide  to  grow  fruits,  and  wish 
land  suited  for  them,  we  would  select  rather  heavy 
moist  land — good  grass  land — for  the  apples,  pears, 
currants,  raspberries  and  blackberries.  The  vegetables 
that  succeed  upon  this  kind  of  land  are  cabbages,  cauli- 
flower, celery,  etc.  Light,  medium  loamy  soil,  with  a 
southern  exposure,  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME 


21 


small  fruits,  grapes,  peaches,  early  vegetables  of  all 
kinds,  melons,  squashes,  and  poultry.  Very  thin  light 
soil  may  be  useful  for  crops  that  mature  early,  before 
the  usual  droughty  season  comes  on,  like  asparagus, 
beets,  beans,  early  lettuce,  etc.  A  northern  slope,  if  in 
full  exposure  to  sunlight  and  air,  is  well  suited  to  the 
growth  of  apples,  peaches,  late  strawberries,  raspberries 
and  blackberries,  cabbages,  turnips,  dandelions,  etc.  The 


r 


m 


FIG.  2 — A  Cottage  Home,  after  Remodelling.    Valued  at  $1200. 

greatest  possibilities  of  any  piece  of  land  cannot  certainly 
be  determined  by  examination,  and  as  much  as  possible 
concerning  its  production  for  the  past  three  or  four 
years  should  be  learned  from  the  previous  owner  or 
from  the  neighbors.  It  may  require  several  years  with 
trial  crops  to  determine  its  adaptability,  and  it  is  best 
therefore  at  first  not  to  risk  large  areas  in  experimental 
crops.  We  may  generally  expect,  however,  by  the  lib- 
eral application  of  stable  manure  and  other  fertilizers, 


22  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

and  thorough  and  constant  tillage,  that  paying  crops 
may  be  grown.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  taking 
up  a  new  business,  or  in  changing  methods  or  location, 
some  time  may  elapse  before  all  of  the  conditions  for 
success  are  mastered.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
lines  of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  where  our  capital 
can  be  turned  and  where  we  can  see  and  profit  by  the 
results  of  a  trial  of  any  variety  or  method  but  once  in 
a  year.  The  success  of  a  crop  the  first  year  will  also 
depend  much  upon  what  crop  was  grown  upon  the 
land  the  previous  year,  and  perhaps  for  a  series  of  three 
or  four  years. 

5.  What  Buildings  Must  We  Have  ? 

Buildings  are  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  the  country  home  or  small  farm,  and  the  num- 
ber and  size  of  the  buildings  needed  for  the  business  in 
hand  will  depend  largely  upon  the  size  of  the  family  and 
the  amount  of  land  to  be  cultivated.  If  our  means  are 
limited,  we  cannot  afford  large  and  costly  buildings 
and  a  few  good,  well-lighted  and  healthful  rooms  that 
can  be  made  comfortable  in  all  weathers  will  suffice  to 
start  with.  A  small  dwelling-house  and  small  outbuild- 
ings with  some  space  between  them,  to  which  additions 
can  be  made  as  the  business  or  other  conditions  require, 
are  better  to  start  with  than  large  buildings  that  must 
be  cared  for  and  continually  kept  in  repair.  If  possible 
all  the  rooms  in  the  house  should  have  the  sun  some 
portion  of  the  day,  especially  the  living  and  sleeping 
rooms.  If  we  are  purchasing  a  home,  we  must  carefully 
inspect  the  foundation  and  sills,  for  many  buildings  that 
are  apparently  sound  upon  the  outside,  will  be  found  in 
a  sad  state  of  decay  under  the  sheathing  or  finish  inside, 
which  will  lead  to  no  end  of  trouble  and  expense.  Ex- 
amine the  chimneys  carefully,  for  in  old  buildings  there 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  23 

are  often  openings  between  the  bricks,  where  the  mortar 
has  fallen  out,  endangering  the  wood- work  near  should 
the  accumulating  soot  take  fire.  A  large  proportion  of 
country  fires  are  due  to  defective  flues.  One  should 
select  buildings,  if  possible,  with  the  sills  well  up  from 
the  ground  upon  good  underpinning  of  stone  or  brick. 
This  ensures  the  sills  from  decay  and  allows  for  good 
ventilation  of  the  cellar.  Enough  stable  room  and  out- 
buildings should  be  provided  to  properly  protect  all 
animals  and  tools  from  the  weather.  By  a  systematic 
arrangement  a  large  number  of  tools  may  be  kept  within 
a  small  space.  More  of  our  agricultural  tools  rust  out 
than  wear  out.  Rapid  and  good  work  cannot  be  done 
with  rusty  tools. 

6.  What  Are  the  Markets  ? 

To  grow  a  crop  successfully  and  cheaply,  and  be  able 
to  sell  it  to  the  best  advantage,  requires  talents  possessed 
by  but  few  individuals.  The  market  where  produce  may 
be  sold  should  be  carefully  investigated.  If  within 
teaming  distance,  or  where  express  trains  run  frequently, 
one  may  look  for  good  prices  for  choice  products,  while 
small  markets  soon  become  glutted  and  prices  will  be 
low,  even  for  the  best.  The  business  of  supplying  the 
non-producing  population  with  fruit  and  vegetables  has 
changed  greatly  in  the  last  two  decades.  Few  families 
now  lay  in  a  supply  of  these  articles  for  winter's  use,  but 
depend  upon  the  peddler  or  the  retail  grocer  for  their 
needs  from  day  to  day.  Instead  of  buying  a  bushel  of 
potatoes,  beets,  or  turnips,  a  barrel  of  apples,  etc.,  they 
buy  in  much  smaller  quantities.  To  supply  the  con- 
sumer in  this  manner  requires  the  grower  either  to 
"peddle"  or  to  sell  his  products  to  those  who  are  in  the 
retail  or  peddling  business.  If  he  sells  to  the  peddler, 
he  must  be  satisfied  to  give  him  a  large  per  cent,  of  profit. 


24  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

If  he  peddles,  he  must  give  up  a  large  amount  of  time 
that  is  valuable  in  growing  the  crops,  and  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  hire  men  who  will  do  either  the  garden  work  or 
the  peddling  well,  except  under  the  eye  of  the  owner. 

There  is  at  the  present  time  a  tendency  in  all  lines  of 
business  to  combine  producing  large  quantities  or  culti- 
vating large  areas  under  one  management.     The  small 
farmer  is  not  exempt  from  this  necessity  of  combining 
with  others  to  obtain  the  greatest  profit,  but  by  doing  his 
own  work  largely  and  supplying  the  consumer  at  first 
hand  he  may  retain  his  independence  and  receive  reason- 
able compensation  for  his  labor.    By  cooperation  in  the 
purchase  and  use  of  modern  machinery,  fertilizers,  and 
supplies,  the  protection  of  crops  from  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  the  small  farmers  may  be  more  successful  finan- 
cially and  still  be  men  of  broad  and  varied  training  and 
not  the  narrow,  mere  machines  which  those  who  work  for 
large  corporations  are  likely  to  become.     Specializing  in 
farming  is  as  much  a  necessity  as  in  other  callings,  for  the 
best  results.    The  man  who  devotes  his  whole  time  to 
growing  asparagus,  strawberries,  or  apples,  will  be  sure  to 
grow  a  better  product  than  if  a  large  number  of  crops  are 
grown,  but  he  runs  the  risk  of  losing  all  by  the  destruc- 
tion  of   the    crop    by   insects,    frosts,    or    unfavorable 
weather.    We  should  have  one  or  more  sure  money  crops 
and  take  our  chances  with  two  or  three  more  that  under 
favorable  conditions,  prompt  effort  and  skill  on  our  part 
are  generally  profitable.     Thus  asparagus,  apples,  and 
strawberries  are  reasonably  sure  to  be  profitable  under 
fair  treatment,  while  peaches,  grapes,  celery,  squashes, 
etc.,  are  more  dependent  upon  weather  conditions  and 
may  sometimes  fail  even  with  our  best  efforts. 

A  location  near  markets  has  many  advantages.  If 
within  easy  driving  distance  one  can  be  frequently  in  the 
markets,  keep  their  condition  closely  in  mind  and  sell 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  25 

or  hold  as  supply  or  prices  may  render  advisable.  The 
cost  of  teaming  our  products,  if  the  distance  be  not 
great,  may  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  by  taking  return 
loads  of  stable  manure  or  other  supplies  back  to  the  farm 
with  little  or  no  loss  of  time. 

On  the  other  hand  land  is  more  expensive  in  locations 
near  the  markets.  If  one  is  on  a  good  line  of  railroad 
where  trains  run  frequently  and  freight  and  express  rates 
are  not  excessive  he  can  often  send  heavy  produce  long 
distances  by  rail  cheaper  than  by  team.  The  close  com- 
munication with  the  markets  is,  however,  lost  and  he  is 
dependent  upon  the  commission  man  or  the  market 
reports. 

7.  Are  the  Roads  Good  ? 

Much  of  success  in  business  and  comfort  of  living  in 
the  country  depends  upon  good  roads.  If  we  are  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  post-office,  stores,  schools, 
churches,  etc.,  good  roads  will  help  wonderfully  in  the 
travel  to  and  from  them.  If  we  must  take  our  produce 
a  long  distance  to  market  or  to  the  railroad  station, 
good  roads  will  reduce  the  wear  and  tear  of  wagons, 
horses,  and  harness,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  getting 
it  to  market.  If  one  is  located  on  a  line  of  state  or 
macadam  road  he  will  find  it  smooth  and  passable  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  while  the  ordinary  country  road  is 
often  impassable  for  heavy  loads  in  the  winter  or  spring. 
Good  roads  cannot  be  made  without  good  road  material. 
If  there  is  only  sand  or  clay  with  which  to  build  roads 
they  will  be  poor  and  only  small  loads  can  be  drawn  over 
them.  Nor  can  a  good  road  be  made  upon  land  satur- 
ated with  water  without  first  unde  --drain  *.ng  the  road- 
bed. Furthermore,  the  surface  should  be  crowned  at 
least  two  inches  to  the  foot,  and  the  poorer  the  material 
the  greater  must  be  this  crowning.  If  roads  are  hollowed 


26  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

out  in  the  middle  water  will  stand  in  these  depressions 
and  the  road  material  will  be  rapidly  worn  to  dust 
which  will  fly  to  every  one's  discomfort  during  dry,  hot 
weather  or  to  mud  in  the  rainy  season.  In  northern  sec- 
tions if  possible  we  should  locate  on  roads  where  the 
snow  does  not  drift  badly  in  the  winter,  making  it  diffi- 
cult or  impossible  to  get  out  without  much  hard  work 
after  heavy  storms. 

In  many  sections  trolley  lines  are  carrying  farm  prod- 
uce to  market  or  to  the  steam  roads  whence  it  goes  to 
market  to  be  sold  by  one's  representative  or  by  the 
commission  man.  This  method  of  disposing  of  our  farm 
products  has  not  become  as  general  as  it  should.  Trolley 
lines  should  be  compelled  to  give  the  people  better 
facilities  than  they  now  enjoy  in  compensation  for  the 
almost  unlimited  privileges  granted  them. 

8.  Is  There  Woodland  on  the  Place  f 

In  these  days,  when  timber  is  being  used  up  so  rap- 
idly, the  supply  is  fast  decreasing  and  the  price  is  going 
higher  every  year,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  a 
wood-lot  or  timber  trees  upon  the  place.  We  must  have 
more  or  less  wood  for  our  fires,  and  lumber  for  repairs 
for  fences  even  upon  the  smallest  place,  and  many 
devices  and  conveniences,  and  a  small  area  properly 
cared  for  will  supply  a  large  number  of  these  wants. 
Then  a  grove  or  "woodsy"  place  where  we  may  take  a 
stroll  in  perfect  quiet,  or  with  the  family  or  friends,  is 
one  of  the  greatest  luxuries  of  country  life.  As  a  rule 
woodland  is  not  held  at  high  prices  in  most  country  dis- 
tricts. It  may  be  purchased  at  from  $10  to  $50  per 
acre  according  to  the  amount  of  wood  and  lumber  upon 
it.  If  located  upon  the  north  or  west  of  the  building 
the  force  of  prevailing  cold  winds  will  be  broken  and 
the  place  be  much  more  comfortable. 


THE  SUBURBAN  HOME  29 

9.   The  Capital  Required. 

One  can  hardly  expect  to  go  into  the  business  of  run- 
ning even  a  small  farm  without  some  capital,  either  in 
ready  cash,  a  place  well  equipped  with  tools  and  supplies, 
or  a  large  amount  of  health  and  vigor  to  put  into  the  pro- 
duction of  crops  that  shall  early  yield  an  income  for  the 
support  of  the  family  and  to  pay  any  interest  and  the 
taxes  that  are  inevitable.  The  amount  of  capital  needed 
will  depend  upon  what  are  the  prospects  for  an  income 
early  in  the  season,  from  poultry,  asparagus,  straw- 
berries, or  other  sources  that  yield  returns  before  the 
main  crops  mature,  and  what  expenses  must  be  met  for 
the  family,  for  fertilizers,  labor,  grain,  tools,  etc.  With  a 
farm  owned  or  rented,  a  capital  of  from  a  few  hundred 
dollars  to  perhaps  one  thousand  dollars  may  be  needed, 
according  to  the  above  conditions.  By  the  neighborly 
exchange  of  labor  and  use  of  tools  the  cost  of  equip- 
ment may  be  much  reduced,  but  it  is  much  more  satis- 
factory for  each  farmer  to  own  all  ordinary  tools  and 
machines,  that  he  may  be  able  to  use  them  whenever 
needed  without  inconveniencing  any  one.  Careful  ac- 
counts should  be  kept  from  the  first,  and  if  possible 
nothing  should  be  purchased  until  the  money  is  in  hand, 
to  pay  for  it.  With  all  the  risks  and  chances  with  pests 
and  wind  and  weather,  this  is  the  only  safe  course  until 
we  have  something  laid  aside  upon  which  to  draw  for 
investment  or  for  increase  of  business. 

SUMMARY. 

With  all  the  foregoing  points  in  mind,  those  who  plan 
to  purchase  or  rent  new  places  should  begin  a  systematic 
and  persistent  search,  looking  over  lists  of  real-estate 
agents,  inquiring  of  friends,  and  using  every  means 
possible  until  the  right  place  is  found.  This  may  be 


30  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

"early  in  the  game,"  or  we  may  have  to  look  about  for 
weeks  or  months.  One  would  hardly  expect  to  find  every- 
thing desired  ready-made  for  him.  The  land  may  be  just 
to  our  ideas  but  the  buildings  in  a  decayed  or  unsatisfac- 
tory condition;  or  the  buildings  may  be  just  what  we 
want  but  the  land  not  quite  right  as  to  exposure  or  soil, 
with  too  many  large  rocks  or  boulders  upon  it,  or  it  may 
be  in  an  exhausted  condition  from  neglect.  As  it  is  the 
land  from  which  we  are  to  obtain  our  income,  those  who 
are  dependent  upon  it  wholly  for  support  must  give  this 
the  closest  attention.  If  the  land  is  simply  run  down 
from  neglect,  but  of  naturally  good  quality,  we  may 
renovate  it  at  small  expense.  If  very  uneven  or  full  of 
large  rocks  it  will  require  much  expense  to  take  out  the 
rocks  and  put  it  in  good  condition  to  cultivate  profitably. 
Small  farms  of  from  five  to  ten  acres  may  often  be  found 
in  desirable  locations  at  from  $1,000  to  $3,000,  in  many 
cases  for  less  than  the  value  of  building  at  the  present 
prices  of  lumber  and  labor.  Fig.  i  (Frontispiece)  shows 
a  place  valued  at  $3,500,  Fig.  2  one  at  $1,200,  and  Fig. 
3  one  valued  at  $800. 

Farm  property  located  not  too  far  from  railroads  is 
considered  good  for  investments  and  if  one  has  not  much 
capital  a  good  place  may  be  mortgaged  for  one-half  to 
two-thirds  value. 


CHAPTER    II 


REMODELLING  AND  IMPROVING  OLD  BUILDINGS 

THE  owner  of  a  small  farm  will  find  that  whether 
he  has  occupied  it  a  long  time  or  has  just  pur- 
chased it  and  is  about  to  make  a  new  depart- 
ure in  his  business,  more  or  less  changing,  repairing  and 
improving  will  be  needed.     If  one  is  not  familiar  with 
this    kind    of    work    an    expert    should    be   consulted. 
Fig.  4a  shows  a  house  before  remodelling.     Fig.  46  the 
same  after  changes  are  completed. 

Utilize  all  Old  Material. 

With  the  high  price  of  lumber,  which  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing, every  one  should  make  the  most  of  what  good 
material  there  may  be  in  old  buildings  upon  the  place 
before  building  new  ones.  There  are  a  great  many  old 
buildings  which  may  be  repaired  for  much  less  than  new 
ones  would  cost,  and  when  these  are  not  worth  repair- 
ing much  of  the  lumber  may  be  used  in  other  buildings. 
This  may  be  rough  and  more  or  less  full  of  nails,  and 
carpenters  do  not  like  to  work  it  over  with  nice  tools, 
but  with  the  ordinary  tools  that  one  should  keep  for 
such  work  it  may  be  sorted  out  and  cleaned  up  at  odd 
times  so  as  not  to  cost  as  much  as  new  lumber.  It  is  on 
the  ground,  no  money  need  be  paid  for  it,  there  is  so 
much  good  material  saved  to  the  world,  and  perhaps 
best  of  all,  an  unsightly  object  is  obliterated  or  changed 
into  something  of  utility  and  possibly  of  beauty.  The 
frames  of  most  old  buildings  are  very  heavy,  many  of 

31 


32  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

the  posts  and  plates  being  large  enough  for  sills  of 
modern  buildings,  while  rafters  are  large  enough  for 
posts  and  plates.  It  is  thoroughly  seasoned  and  when 
fitted  in  place  will  be  less  liable  to  warp  than  new 
lumber. 

First  Make  Buildings  and  Surroundings  Healthful. 

As  when  deciding  about  the  location  and  surroundings 
of  the  house,  the  healthfulness  in  and  about  old  build- 
ings is  by  far  more  important  than  any  other  considera- 
tion. Search  should  be  made  from  cellar  to  attic,  through 
and  about  every  building,  for  anything  that  would  pos- 
sibly produce  unhealthful  conditions.  Begin  with  the 
cellars.  See  that  surface  water  or  that  from  springs  does 
not  run  in  through  the  walls,  making  it  damp  and 
malarial.  See  that  the  water  supply  for  the  house  and 
stable  has  not  become  contaminated  by  drainage  from 
the  cesspool,  sink  or  stable. 

Examine  the  Sills. 

About  the  first  thing  to  need  renewing,  especially 
when  the  buildings  are  set  low,  are  the  sills,  and  these 
are  often  the  most  costly  to  repair.  As  soon  as  the  foun- 
dation begins  to  settle  or  the  sills  become  soft,  there  is  a 
settling  of  the  frame  above,  the  windows  and  doors  be- 
come tight,  the  walls  crack  and  soon  extensive  repairs 
may  have  to  be  made.  At  the  first  indication  of  this, 
jack-screws  should  be  put  under,  these  parts  raised  into 
place  and  substantially  supported.  All  foundation  walls, 
piers,  or  other  supports  should  be  laid  below  frost  line, 
which  will  vary  in  different  sections  from  two  to  four 
feet.  A  "stitch  in  time"  will  often  save  much  loss  and 
sometimes  prevent  serious  accidents.  The  best  mate- 
rial for  sills  where  exposed  to  much  wet  or  in  poorly  ven- 
tilated places  is  chestnut  or  cypress.  Should  the  build- 


FIG.  4  a — A  COTTAGE  HOUSE  BEFORE  REMODELLING. 


FIG.  46 — A  COTTAGE  HOUSE  AFTER  REMODELLING. 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  35 

ing  be  set  low,  so  that  the  sills  are  constantly  wet,  it 
might  be  economy  to  raise  the  whole  building  to  a  foun- 
dation a  foot  or  two  higher  and  put  in  windows,  so  that 
the  inside  sills  and  floor  timbers  may  be  kept  dry,  under 
which  condition  they  will  not  decay  any  more  rapidly 
than  other  parts  of  the  frame. 

Roofs  and  Gutters. 

Next  after  the  foundation  and  sills  the  roofs  should 
have  attention;  in  fact,  no  part  of  a  building  will  last 
long  under  a  leaky  roof.  If  the  leaky  condition  is  due  to 
decayed  shingles  they  should  be  replaced  by  new  or 
some  of  the  asphalt  roofing  materials,  many  of  which 
if  carefully  laid,  the  joints  well  cemented,  and  after- 
wards given  a  coat  of  asphalt  every  two  or  three  years, 
will  last  a  long  time.  Good  clear  butts  spruce  shingles 
are  perhaps  cheaper  in  the  end  than  these  roofing  ma- 
terials, but  the  first  cost  is  more  and  more  skilled  laborers 
are  needed  to  put  them  on.  Roof  gutters  and  spaces 
about  chimneys  should  have  careful  attention  and  tin, 
lead,  or  asphalt  roofing,  well  cemented,  be  laid  so  wide, 
that  the  water  will  not  set  back  and  run  through  to  the 
rooms  below.  To  prevent  water  from  setting  back 
from  the  eaves  during  severe  cold  weather  in  winter, 
two  or  three  thicknesses  of  ordinary  building  paper 
should  be  laid  under  the  shingles,  or  other  roofing  ma- 
terial. Where  warmth  in  the  rooms  immediately  under 
the  roof  is  desired,  building  paper  should  first  be  laid. 
Many  poultry -houses  are  built  with  side  walls  well 
lined  with  paper  and  then  shingled,  while  the  roof  (the 
most  exposed  part)  is  shingled  upon  only  open  jointed 
boards,  the  cold  dropping  quickly  to  the  floor,  and  no 
amount  of  side  covering  will  make  them  warm. 


36  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Slate  Shingles. 

If  one  can  afford  the  expense,  slate  shingles  are  more 
durable  and  cheaper  in  the  end  if  well  laid.  It  is  the 
practice  in  some  localities  to  lay  slate  shingles  over  old 
wood  shingles.  If  the  latter  are  fairly  good  and  all  in 
place  this  makes  a  much  warmer  roof,  and  is  to  be 
recommended.  Should  the  old  lining-boards  be  rough 
and  uneven  when  the  old  shingles  are  removed,  two 
thicknesses  of  ordinary  building  paper  will  enable  slate 
shingles  to  be  safely  laid. 

Iron  and  Steel  Roofing. 

Iron  and  steel  roofing  materials  are  being  offered  at  a 
very  low  price,  but  most  of  them  last  only  a  short  time, 
rusting  out  quickly  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  If 
these  roofings  are  thoroughly  painted  on  the  under  side 
before  laying  and  given  a  heavy  coat  of  paint  on  the 
outside  every  two  or  three  years  they  make  a  fairly  sat- 
isfactory roof. 

Heavy  tin  and  thickly  galvanized  iron  or  steel  make 
more  serviceable  roofs  than  the  above. 

Inside  Conveniences;    Water. 

Nothing  adds  so  much  to  the  economy  of  housework 
and  comfortable  living  as  an  abundance  of  water,  sup- 
plied without  the  labor  of  pumping  or  carrying  it. 
Running  water  from  springs  or  some  town  or  city  supply 
is  the  most  satisfactory.  When  this  is  not  available,  the 
supply  may  be  forced  into  an  elevated  tank  by  wind- 
mill, ram  or  gasoline  engine.  When  there  is  a  never- 
failing  small  stream  with  sufficient  fall  the  hydraulic 
ram  is  very  satisfactory. 

For  many  years  past  windmills  have  been  largely 
used  to  force  water  into  the  supply-tanks,  but  most  of 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  37 

them  are  likely  to  soon  wear  out  or  get  out  of  order, 
being  exposed  to  high  winds  and  gales,  and  they  are  now 
being  replaced  by  gasoline  or  hot-air  engines;  when  an 
engine  is  properly  installed,  well  protected,  and  care- 
fully used,  it  will  last  a  long  time  and  the  water  supply 
is  insured  whether  the  wind  blows  or  not. 

Purity  of  the  Water. 

Town  and  city  water  supplies  are  generally  carefully 
inspected  by  local  authorities  or  state  officials  and  are 
safer  than  water  from  local  wells  or  basins.  Before  any 
water  supply  is  used  freely  it  should  be  carefully  in- 
spected and  if  any  doubt  exists  as  to  its  purity  samples 
should  be  sent  to  experiment  stations,  state  boards  of 
health,  or  other  authorities  whose  duty  it  is  to  analyze 
such  supply. 

Bath-rooms,  hot  and  cold  water,  and  water-closets 
should  be  put  into  every  country  home,  wherever  pos- 
sible. These  can  be  arranged  in  a  small  space,  and  if 
the  water  cannot  be  supplied  in  any  other  way,  a  good 
force-pump  will  do  the  work  of  supplying  the  tank  in 
the  attic  in  an  hour  or  two  each  day.  A  very  small 
expenditure  for  so  great  a  luxury. 

Sanitation. 

Wherever  waste  water  is  carried  into  cesspools  or 
vaults  the  pipes  must  be  provided  with  proper  traps 
and  escapes  to  prevent  the 
gas  from  these  places  from 
entering  the  buildings  t  -  ^r 
(Fig.  5).  All  traps  should  I 
be  placed  where  they  may  be 
easily  gotten  at  and  cleaned 
out  in  case  of  stoppage,  and 


Out 


where  they  will  not  freeze  in      FlGf-5—  A  Trap  to  Prevent  Escape 

J  ot  oewer  Gas  from  Cesspools,  Etc. 


38  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

severe  weather.  If  a  very  large  amount  of  foul  matter  is 
going  through  the  trap  it  will  soon  become  unsafe  and 
should  be  cleaned  at  short  intervals.  A  vent-pipe  for  the 
escape  of  gases  from  below  the  trap  should  be  put  in,  in 
all  cases.  Cisterns  and  cesspools  should  be  cleaned  out  at 
least  once  each  year  and  the  latter  more  frequently  if 
necessary.  Where  the  cesspool  is  in  springy  soil  an 
overflow  pipe  should  be  put  in  a  little  below  this  pipe 
so  that  the  flow  into  it  may  not  become  clogged  with 
solid  matter  which  generally  rises  to  the  surface. 

BAY  AND  DORMER  WINDOWS,  PORCHES,  VERANDAS, 
PIAZZAS,  ETC. 

Many  old  country  houses  have  been  very  much  im- 
proved and  beautified  by  some  of  the  above-mentioned 
features.  Thus  a  dark,  poorly  lighted  room  may  often 
be  made  light  and  sunny  by  the  addition  of  a  project- 
ing or  bay  window  from  the  side  or  end.  If  upon  the 
north,  the  projection  may  be  such  as  to  catch  the  sun's 
rays  morning  and  evening.  If  upon  the  south,  and  the 
space  is  not  otherwise  needed,  it  may  serve  as  a  con- 
servatory where  the  house  plants  can  be  cared  for  with 
but  little  effort.  Dormer  windows  may  often  be  put  into 
the  roof  (see  Fig.  2)  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  additional 
rooms  in  the  attic  that  are  well  lighted  and  sunny. 
Covered  porches  and  storm-doors  add  much  to  the  com- 
fort of  the  family  in  stormy  weather  and  may  be  made 
to  add  beauty  to  the  house  as  well. 

Piazzas  and  verandas  are  often  a  great  luxury. 
On  the  north  in  summer  and  the  south  side  in  the 
winter  they  afford  quiet  resting-places  for  invalids  or 
those  wearied  by  toil  of  any  kind.  These  need  not 
.be  expensive  structures.  A  simple,  light,  but  strong 
frame  covered  with  sound  boards  and  tin  planed  and 
beaded  on  the  under  side  so  that  they  may  be  neatly 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  39 

painted  will  suffice.  If  given  but  a  slight  pitch  and 
covered  with  heavy  tin  laid  flat  this  will  make  sufficient 
cover  for  the  floor  below  and  serve  as  the  floor  of  a  bal- 
cony above.  The  heavy  verandas  and  piazzas  built  to 
many  of  our  dwellings  often  overbalance  the  rest  of  the 
structure  and  add  to  its  cost  more  than  is  warranted. 
The  open  veranda  or  platform  over  which  an  awning 
is  placed  (see  Fig.  2)  in  the  summer  and  in  stormy 
weather  has  the  advantage  that  the  windows  opening 
out  upon  it  need  not  be  shaded  unless  desired,  and  in 
pleasant  weather  one  may  be  out  in  full  exposure  to  sun- 
light and  air.  The  shingled  veranda  adds  much  of  beauty 
and  comfort  to  old  country  houses. 

REPAIRS  OF  OUTBUILDINGS. 

The  wood-shed,  storage-room  and  tool-rooms  are  per- 
haps of  next  importance.  Besides  storing  a  sufficient 
supply  of  wood  for  the  year,  the  shed  should  be  large 
enough  to  comfortably  store  many  of  the  appliances  of 
the  kitchen  and  laundry — the  forms  upon  which  the 
wash-tubs  stand,  the  clothes-horse,  baskets,  etc.,  and 
perhaps  the  wheelbarrow,  baby  carriage,  bicycles,  and 
numerous  other  articles,  needed  for  the  comfort  of  the 
family.  Wherever  these  things  are  stored,  each  should 
have  a  place,  and  every  member  of  the  family  should  be 
expected  to  return  each  to  its  place  after  using.  By  a 
series  of  pegs,  or  hooks  and  a  shelf  or  two,  a  large  num- 
ber of  small  articles  may  be  hung  or  put  away  where 
they  are  in  sight  and  easily  reached. 

The  Tool-House. 

Whether  we  are  farming  or  gardening  on  a  small  or 
large  scale,  a  more  or  less  large  equipment  of  tools  is 
needed  for  successful  and  profitable  work,  both  for  out- 
side work  and  under  cover  on  stormy  days  and  during 


4° 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


the  winter.  The  most  successful  farmers  or  gardeners 
are  handy  men,  able  to  turn  their  hands  to  many  kinds 
of  work,  and  not  always  dependent  upon  the  mechanics 
in  the  town  or  city,  which  may  be  several  miles  away, 
often  taking  more  time  to  go  and  return  with  a  job  than 
to  do  the  work  oneself.  A  small  kit  of  tools  for  iron 
working,  and  wood  working,  a  supply  of  bolts,  nuts, 
screws,  nails,  etc.,  that  cost  but  a  few  dollars,  will  often 
save  all  they  cost  in  repairing  but  a  few  articles. 


FIG.  6 — A  Handy  Tool-Room  or  Work-Shop. 

To  make  the  most  of  such  an  equipment  one  must 
know  how  to  care  for  them,  be  more  or  less  skilful  in 
their  use,  and  have  them  systematically  arranged  where 
they  may  always  be  found  when  wanted.  Sets  of 
wrenches,  cold  chisels,  bits,  drills,  and  other  tools  should 
be  compactly  placed  in  racks  or  drawers  where  they 
may  almost  be  found  with  the  eyes  closed  (Fig.  6). 
Different  kinds  of  woods,  boards,  mouldings,  etc.,  should 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  41 

be  placed  in  racks  upon  the  ceiling  or  under  the  bench. 
A  wooden  vise  attached  to  a  substantial  bench  is  needed 
for  wood  working  and  an  iron  one  with  an  anvil  attach- 
ment will  be  found  most  useful.  If  one  has  a  large 
equipment  of  teams  and  tools,  a  portable  forge,  a  few 
plumbing  tools,  taps  and  dies,  etc.,  will  save  many  a 
large  bill. 

Care  of  Farming  and  Gardening  Tools. 
The  good  workman  is  known  by  his  tools,   and  no 
workman  can  do  his  best  with  poor  tools  or  those  badly 


FIG.  7— The  Tool-Room.     Farm  Tools  Hung  on  the  Walls 
of  the  Barn  Basement. 

cared  for.  All  tools  should  be  cleaned  and  wiped  after 
using  and  hung  in  their  proper  places.  A  large  number 
of  tools  may  be  kept  in  a  very  small  space  when  prop- 
erly arranged.  The  large  tools  like  mowing-machines, 
horse-rakes,  etc.,  will  require  considerable  floor  room, 
but  the  plows,  cultivators,  seed-sowers,  weeders,  etc., 
may  be  hung  upon  pegs  or  large  hooks  along  the  sides 
of  the  tool-  or  wagon-shed  or  cellar,  as  shown  in  the 


42  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

illustration  (Fig.  7).  Chains,  whiffletrees,  eveners,  etc., 
may  be  disposed  of  in  the  same  manner,  when  they  may 
be  quickly  taken  down  for  use  or  an  inventory  taken  at 
a  glance  to  tell  whether  any  have  been  left  out  or  been 
borrowed  by  neighbors.  Spades,  shovels,  forks,  rakes, 
hoes,  etc.,  may  be  hung  in  a  still  more  compact  manner 
upon  racks,  either  home-made  or  the  neat  cast-iron  ones 
offered  by  dealers. 

Mark  all  Tools. 

Nothing  gives  one  more  trouble  than  lending  tools  in 
the  busy  season,  and  while  we  all  like  to  be  neighborly, 
many  borrowers  are  so  forgetful  that  we  often  reach 
the  state  of  declining  to  lend  to  any  one.  However, 
as  we  at  times  find  it  necessary  to  ask  favors  of  neigh- 
bors, and  we  should  all  "  give  and  take, "  we  may  get  over 
the  difficulty  somewhat  by  having  every  tool  distinctly 
marked  or  branded  with  our  name.  As  it  is  very  desir- 
able to  have  the  wood-work  of  all  tools  covered  with 
oil  or  paint,  if  we  adopt  some  distinctive  color  and  in 
addition  to  branding  paint  all  wood-work  every  two  or 
three  years  with  our  special  color,  we  can  recognize  our 
tools  at  a  long  distance  and  easily  keep  them  at  home. 

Have  a  Warm  Tool-Room. 

A  room  that  can  be  warmed  is  almost  a  necessity  where 
repairs  of  tools,  harness,  market  boxes,  berry  crates,  etc., 
can  be  comfortably  made  in  stormy  weather  and  during 
the  winter.  The  room  should  be  dry,  and  when  the 
weather  is  very  moist  and  warm  outside  and  cold  inside, 
the  doors  and  windows  must  be  kept  closed  or  the 
moisture  will  be  condensed  upon  the  tools,  causing 
them  to  rust  badly.  In  the  fall,  while  the  tools  are 
bright,  if  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  linseed  oil  they 
will  be  protected  from  rusting. 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  43 

Poultry  Houses. 

Raising  poultry  is  one  of  the  largest  interests  on  most 
small  farms,  and  one  in  which  cheap  buildings  if  warm 
and  dry  are  often  as  serviceable  as  more  costly  ones. 
An  abundance  of  sunlight,  warmth,  and  air  must  be  pro- 
vided. The  first  must  be  provided  by  a  large  glass  sur- 
face on  the  south  side.  Second-hand  window-sash  or  hot- 
bed sash  may  often  be  purchased  for  about  the  value  of 
the  glass  in  them,  and  if  the  frames  are  not  badly  de- 


I 


FIG.  8 — A  Modern  Poultry-House  with  Scratching  Shed. 

cayed,  by  removing  the  glass,  cleaning  off  the  putty  and 
thoroughly  saturating  the  joints  with  thin  paint,  using 
a  little  kerosene  in  it,  they  may  be  made  almost  as  good 
as  new.  Double  sash  will  be  economical  during  the  win- 
ter if  ventilators  are  provided  for  a  sufficient  supply  of 
fresh  air  during  the  middle  of  the  day  and  in  warm 
weather  (Fig.  8) .  Thin  cotton  cloth  is  now  coming  into 
use  in  place  of  glass  as  shown  in  the  lower  sash.  It 
affords  more  protection  from  cold  than  glass,  and  pre- 
vents drafts  when  it  is  necessary  to  open  on  warm  days. 


44  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Warm  Houses. 

There  is  little  danger  of  getting  old  houses  too  warm 
if  scratching-sheds  are  provided.  There  will  always 
be  more  or  less  cracks  and  holes  through  which  cold 
air  will  come.  Old  houses  can  be  made  warm  by  the 
use  of  building  paper  and  banking  about  the  foun- 
dation with  old  hay  or  straw.  Tarred  paper  is  largely 
used,  as  it  is  antiseptic  and  a  partial  insecticide, 
though  not  as  warm  as  untarred  or  felt  paper.  The 
lining-boards  between  the  rafters  should  be  covered 
as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  building,  for  no  matter 
how  warm  the  sides  are  made,  the  houses  will  be  cold  and 
damp  from  the  cold  air  dropping  down  from  this  ex- 
posed surface.  If  there  is  no  floor  in  the  house,  the 
ground  outside  for  three  or  four  feet  should  be  covered 
with  enough  hay,  straw  or  leaves  to  prevent  its  freez- 
ing, for  without  this  covering  the  frost  might  work  into, 
the  soil  inside,  no  matter  how  warm  the  sides  and  roof 
are  made. 

Barn,  Stable,  and  Carriage- House. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  foundation,  sills,  roof,  etc., 
of  other  buildings  applies  equally  well  to  these  struc- 
tures. Whenever  possible  changes  should  be  made  to 
improve  the  conveniences  for  caring  for  stock  and  com- 
fort of  the  same,  storing  fodder,  and  the  disposal  of  the 
manure,  etc.  The  latter  should  be  disposed  of  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  gases  shall  not  rise  into  the  stable  or 
carriage-room.  If  it  is  dropped  into  the  cellar  below  an 
abundance  of  absorbent  material  must  be  used,  and 
windows  made  through  the  under-pinning  on  three  or 
four  sides.  The  best  disposition  that  can  be  made  of 
this  material  is  to  either  put  it  on  the  land  as  made  or 
dump  it  into  a  covered  watertight  pit,  with  all  waste 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS 


45 


matter  from  lawn,  house,  or  garden,  and  keep  it  well 
covered  with  fine  soil  or  other  absorbents.  It  is  sur- 
prising how  much  rich  compost  can  be  made  from  one  or 
two  animals  or  even  from  more  in  this  manner,  and  the 
abundance  of  vegetables  and  fruit  this  compost  will 
enable  us  to  grow. 

Cheap  buildings  may  be  made  tight  and  warm  in  the 
manner  described  for  poultry-houses.  A  very  neat  ap- 
pearance will  be  produced  upon  the  sides,  if  heavy  roof- 
ing paper  is  used,  with  vertical  strips  or  battens  placed 
neatly  about  one  foot  apart,  and  then  all  painted. 
Horses  and  cows  need  a  warm  dry  place  with  an  abun- 


rv 


J 


FIG.  9— A  Modern  System  of  Ventilating  Stables, 
Poultry-Houses,  Etc. 

dance  of  sunlight  and  air.  One  of  the  most  approved 
methods  of  ventilating  stables  or  poultry  buildings  is  to 
have  the  fresh  air  come  in  from  the  outside  at  the  sills, 
entering  the  stable  under  the  upper  floor,  and  the  foul 
air  passing  into  a  shaft  near  the  floor  somewhere  in 
front  of  the  animals  on  a  level  with  the  floor  (Fig.  9). 


46 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


One  inlet  4  x  20  inches  to  each  ten  feet  of  length  will  be 
sufficient  for  a  small  number  of  animals,  with  an  exit 
shaft  from  one  to  two  feet  square,  according  to  the 
number  of  animals. 

SHINGLING    WALLS  OF  OLD  BUILDINGS. 

Many  old  buildings  have  become  unsightly  from  the 
starting  and  working  off  of  the  clapboards,  which  it  is 
found  difficult  to  hold  in  place  with  anything  but  large 


FIG.  10 — A  Small  Shingled  Building  Covered  with  Vines ; 
Grapevine  above,  Nasturtiums  below. 

nails  that  often  crack  them,  increasing  the  unsightliness. 
Such  walls  may  be  covered  with  shingles,  first  removing 
the  clapboards  and  putting  on  over  the  lining-boards 
one  or  two  thicknesses  of  building  paper,  making  very 
warm  and  neat  buildings.  The  cost  of  first  quality 
shingles  and  clapboards  is  about  the  same  per  square 
(100  sq.  ft.  10  x  10  ft.)  when  the  former  are  laid  four 
inches  to  the  weather,  but  when  laid  five  inches  or  five 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  47 

and  one-half  inches  to  the  weather  as  is  often  done  upon 
upright  walls,  shingles  become  the  cheapest  and  can  be 
laid  by  less  skilled  laborers. 

Shingles  should  never  be  painted  on  the  outside  only, 
as  they  will  decay  more  quickly  than  if  not  painted  at 
all,  for  the  reason  that  the  rain  will  work  in  at  the 
cracks,  but  will  work  out  less  rapidly  from  a  painted 
roof.  If  it  is  desirable  to  paint  shingled  surfaces  either 
on  the  roof  or  sides  the  butts  should  first  be  dipped  into 
thin  paint '  an  inch  or  two  above  where  they  lap  when 
laid  after  which  they  may  be  painted  with  but  little  or 
no  injury.  The  majority  of  shingled  roofs  and  houses 
are  not  painted,  the  natural  color  of  the  unpainted 
shingles  being  preferred  as  more  in  keeping  with  natural 
objects  like  rocks,  tree  trunks,  etc.  A  shingled  house, 
unpainted,  with  window  frames  white  or  dark  green  and 
the  sash  black,  in  a  setting  of  ornamental  trees,  vines, 
and  plants;  with  more  or  less  color  from  bright  flowers, 
leaves  and  fruits,  is  about  as  near  natural  beauty  as 
the  hand  of  man  can  produce.  Fig.  10  shows  a  shed 
covered  with  shingles  and  vines,  and  Fig.  1 1  a  modern 
shingled  house. 

Painting  Old  Buildings. 

Nothing  adds  more  to  the  beauty  of  old  buildings  than 
a  good  coat  of  paint  of  pleasing  colors,  suited  to  the 
surroundings.  Painting  is  one  of  the  best  investments 
one  who  owns  buildings  can  make.  We  paint  for  two 
reasons — to  preserve  the  wood  work,  and  to  enhance  the 
beauty  of  the  buildings.  To  preserve  the  wood  work  it 
is  economy  to  put  on  a  coat  of  paint  every  three  to  five 
years,  according  to  the  weather  conditions  and  the  kind 
of  paint  used.  In  seasons  of  many  changes  from  wet  to 
dry  paint  will  come  off  of  wood  work  more  rapidly  than 
when  we  have  but  few  changes  and  little  rain.  Some 


48  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

kinds  of  paint  will  stand  well  for  from  five  to  eight  years, 
while  others  will  last  but  a  short  time. 

To  produce  the  best  results,  buildings  should  be 
thoroughly  dry,  that  the  paint  may  penetrate  into  all 
the  cracks  and  crevices  and  thus  shut  out  the  moisture, 


FIG.  11 — A  Modern  Shingled  House. 

which  causes  wood  work  to  decay  most  rapidly.  It  may 
take  more  paint  under  this  condition,  but  it  will  be 
economy  in  the  end. 

Time  for  Painting. 

In  view  of  what  has  just  been  said  it  would  seem  that 
during  a  very  dry  summer  would  be  the  best  time  to 
paint  our  houses,  but  the  general  practice  is  to  paint  in 
the  spring  or  early  fall,  and  very  little  attention  is  given 
to  the  condition  of  the  buildings,  state  of  the  weather, 
etc.  Perhaps  the  reason  for  this  practice  is  the  fact 
that  the  weather  conditions  at  these  times  are  as  good  as 
at  any  other  season  and  labor  less  busy.  The  winter 
months  have  many  advantages  for  painting.  During 
cold  weather  the  same  amount  of  oil  and  coloring  matter 
will  be  a  little  thicker  than  in  the  summer,  will  dry  or 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  49 

harden  more  upon  the  surface,  and  may  thus  possess 
just  as  much  preservative  power  as  if  it  penetrated  more 
into  the  wood  work.  Many  skilled  painters  use  a  large 
amount  of  turpentine  with  the  first  coat  of  paint  upon  old 
buildings  to  make  it  penetrate  better,  but  turpentine 
is  often  almost  double  the  cost  of  oil  and  is  not  as  much 
of  a  preservative.  Therefore  while  we  conclude  that  the 
winter  may  not  be  the  best  time  to  paint,  the  work  is 
so  expensive  an  operation  that  those  who  are  about  to 
paint  their  buildings  should  do  it  when  it  can  be  done 
most  thoroughly  and  most  economically. 

Kind  of  Paints  to  Use. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  pure  white  lead  and  pure 
linseed  oil  make  the  most  durable  paint,  and  in  the  end 
the  cheapest.  With  white  lead  as  a  foundation  almost 
any  medium  or  light  colors  may  be  produced  by  the  ad- 
dition of  the  necessary  dark  colors.  A  large  percentage 
of  the  paints  used  are  what  are  called  ''ready  mixed." 

Ready  mixed  paints  put  up  by  reputable  dealers  are 
good,  being  mixed  by  machinery,  and  therefore  the 
lead  or  other  pigments  are  more  intimately  mixed 
with  the  oil  than  can  be  done  by  hand;  but  in  the 
greed  for  profits  many  ready  mixed  paints  made  by 
unprincipled  manufacturers  are  adulterated,  and  dealers 
often  advocate  their  use  because  of  the  larger  profit  to 
themselves. 

Mixing  Paints. 

If  standard  white  lead  is  used  for  the  foundation  much 
care  and  skill  must  be  exercised  if  a  variety  of  colors 
is  desired.  In  this  work  the  lead  should  be  first  thor- 
oughly mixed  so  that  it  is  smooth  and  even  all  through; 
then  the  coloring  materials  are  to  be  as  thoroughly 
mixed,  and  then  unless  a  fixed  formula  is  used  a  little  is 


50  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

added  to  the  white  and  stirred  until  the  whole  is  thor- 
oughly mixed.  This  is  repeated  until  the  shade  is  just 
like  the  sample  to  be  matched.  If  dry  coloring  materials 
are  used,  each  one  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  sepa- 
rately, with  a  little  oil  only,  until  smooth,  then  more  oil 
added  and  again  mixed  until  it  will  pour,  then  it  is 
mixed  with  the  white  lead. 

No  definite  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  quantity  of 
various  materials  needed  to  produce  certain  tints,  but 
with  a  sample  on  a  card  or  piece  of  wood  one  must  keep 
adding,  little  at  a  time,  the  colors  that  will  produce  the 
desired  shade.  In  testing  a  color,  one  must  rub  it  thor- 
oughly with  the  brush  in  order  to  bring  out  the  same 
shade  as  would  be  obtained  by  spreading  it  upon  a 
building. 

Popular  Colors. 

Every  few  years  certain  colors  are  "in  fashion,"  as 
are  coats,  hats  or  gloves.  Thus  various  shades  of  gray 
were  popular  twenty-five  years  ago;  then  came  the 
browns  a  few  years  later;  then  buffs  and  yellows  with 
white  or  dark  green  trimmings;  and  at  the  present  time 
shades  of  green  are  much  used.  In  the  thickly-settled 
village  almost  any  of  the  above  shades  if  not  too  bright 
and  glaring,  smoothly  put  on,  are  in  harmony  with  the 
surroundings,  but  in  the  country  soft  colors  of  gray, 
brown,  or  buff  are  more  appropriate.  White,  the  typi- 
cal color  of  New  England  country  dwellings,  and  some 
other  sections,  is  too  glaring  unless  heavily  set  with 
trees  and  shrubbery.  While  white  lead  is  perhaps  the 
most  durable  of  paints,  it  is  easily  soiled  by  contact  with 
trees,  or  by  water  running  down  from  the-  eaves,  and 
often  it  costs  more  to  keep  a  house  looking  nicely  in 
white  than  in  some  other  color. 


REMODELLING  OLD  BUILDINGS  51 

Paint  Brushes. 

The  better  the  brush  and  the  more  carefully  it  is  used 
the  better  the  work  will  be  done,  but  it  is  not  advisable 
for  the  amateur  to  buy  expensive  brushes  which  are  used 
for  a  little  time  and  then  left  without  use  to  harden  and 
become  worthless.  The  professional,  who  is  using  brushes 
continually  and  cares  for  them  in  the  best  manner,  finds 
the  best  the  cheapest.  Ordinary  cheap  brushes  will  do 
good  work  for  a  while  and  with  care  may  be  used  for  a 
considerable  time.  Before  using,  brushes  should  be 
soaked  in  water  or  oil,  to  swell  the  bristles  and  the 
handles  so  that  they  will  not  pull  out  in  using.  After 
using  they  should  be  cleaned  of  paint  as  much  as  possible 
by  rubbing  on  a  coarse  board  or  stones,  and  then  be  sus- 
pended in  water,  bristles  down.  If  a  little  kerosene  is 
put  in  the  water  it  will  help  keep  the  brushes  from  hard- 
ening. If  very  hard  and  old.  a  little  potash  put  into  the 
water  will  soften  up  the  hardened  oil,  though  perhaps 
the  bristles  may  be  somewhat  softened  also  and  made 
less  durable. 

House  Painting. 

The  professional  house-painter  will  claim  that  his  work 
is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  amateur,  yet  with  a  few 
brushes  and  a  little  practice  in  mixing  paint  and  putting 
it  on,  any  one  at  all  skilful  in  the  use  of  tools  will  be 
able  to  do  a  good  job  of  painting  and  often  with  a  large 
saving  in  labor  bills.  The  aim  in  this  work  should  be  to 
spread  the  paint  evenly  and  to  fill  up  all  cracks  and  nail- 
holes  so  that  water  or  air  will  not  penetrate.  If  there 
are  many  large  cracks  and  nail-holes,  after  the  first  coat 
has  hardened  they  should  be  filled  up  with  soft  putty 
that  can  be  pressed  into  small  openings. 


CHAPTER   III 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES 


MANY  problems  confront  those  who  are  about 
to  build  a  new  house  and  settle  in  the  country. 
If  the  readers  have  followed  the  suggestions 
in  the  preceding  chapters  about  looking  for  a  home,  and 
have  found  "just  what  is  wanted"  or  a  house  that  can 
be  so  remodelled   as  to  satisfy  the  desired  conditions, 
they  are  indeed  fortunate.       But   if   only  the  land  has 
been  found,  they  face  the  problem  of  building  a  new 
dwelling-house  and  outbuildings. 

Building  A  ssociations. 

At  the  prevailing  prices  of  building  materials,  espe- 
cially lumber,  new  buildings  cannot  be  constructed  with- 
out more  or  less  ready  money.  There  are,  however, 
many  ways  by  which  those  of  limited  means  can  build. 
In  many  places  there  are  building  associations  which 
will  put  up  a  house  after  one's  own  plans,  payment  to 
be  made  weekly,  monthly,  or  quarterly,  which  shall 
cover  rent,  taxes,  interest  and  something  on  the  prin- 
cipal with  each  payment.  This  is  a  very  good  scheme 
provided  the  association  is  not  too  grasping  and  one  is 
sure  of  a  regular  income  with  which  to  meet  the  pay- 
ments. Builders  and  contractors,  too,  may  be  found  who 
build  new  houses  and  offer  them  for  sale  on  easy  terms. 
These  associations  and  contractors,  building  extensively 
as  they  do,  can  buy  materials  much  cheaper  than  one 
building  a  single  house,  and  therefore  can  afford  to  sell 

52 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  53 

at  a  reasonable  price  and  yet  make  a  large  profit.  There 
is  the  advantage  in  buying  a  new  house  just  completed 
that  those  who  have  not  made  a  study  of  building  plans 
and  specifications  can  see  it  in  its  completeness  and 
better  judge  whether  or  not  it  is  suited  to  their  wants. 

A  Definite  Plan. 

The  kind  of  house,  the  amount  of  room  required,  and 
every  point  connected  with  the  undertaking  should  be 
studied  and  a  complete  and  definite  plan  adopted.  This 
plan  may  be  made  by  a  skilled  architect,  or  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family  may  get  together  and  decide  what 
rooms  are  needed,  the  details  of  construction  to  be 
worked  out  by  a  carpenter  or  builder.  It  is,  as  a  rule, 
more  economical  to  have  a  plan  made  by  a  professional 
architect,  which  will  often  save  more  than  its  cost  in 
buying  material,  planning,  and  doing  the  work. 

Contract  vs.  Day  Labor. 

If  one  putting  up  a  new  building  has  had  some  experi- 
ence and  can  more  or  less  direct  and  assist  in  the  work, 
building  by  day  labor  is  often  the  most  satisfactory,  but 
if  he  knows  little  or  nothing  of  such  work,  it  will  be  best 
and  cheapest  done  by  a  responsible  contractor  with  com- 
plete plans  and  the  fullest  possible  specifications. 

THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  POINTS. 

In  building  a  house  of  whatever  material  the  follow- 
ing points  should  be  most  carefully  considered: 

Location. 

For  comfort  and  healthfulness  a  southern  or  sunny 
exposure  is  desirable.  While  for  a  time  during  the  sum- 
mer, a  northern  and  perhaps  a  shaded  exposure  may  be 
most  comfortable,  unless  the  sun  strikes  a  building  or  its 
immediate  surroundings  for  a  considerable  part  of  each 


54  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

day  the  rooms,  especially  during  wet  and  cloudy  weather, 
will  become  moist  and  unhealthful.  During  the  winter, 
when  fires  are  kept  up,  the  rooms  may  become  dry 
enough  for  health,  but  there  is  nothing  like  sunshine  to 
destroy  the  germs  of  disease  in  our  dwellings.  If  pos- 
sible select  a  site  where  there  are  pleasant  views,  a  sheet 
of  water,  a  winding  brook,  extensive  meadows,  hills  or 
mountains.  Some  locations  will  of  course  afford  more  of 
these  beautiful  features  than  others,  but  none  should  be 
wholly  devoid  of  something  of  beauty,  that  we  will 
want  to  have  before  us  as  much  as  possible.  Unsightly 
views  or  objects  may  often  be  avoided  in  the  location 
of  the  building,  or  be  covered  or  hidden  in  the  arrange- 
ment or  by  after  planting  of  trees.  Outbuildings  should 
be  put  in  the  rear  yet  so  as  to  be  conveniently  reached 
from  the  house.  These  should  not  be  in  such  a  condition 
as  to  need  hiding,  but  should  be  kept  neat  and  tidy  and 
so  decorated  with  trees,  shrubs  and  vines  as  to  be  ob- 
jects of  beauty.  Having  the  stable  and  other  outbuild- 
ings connected  with  the  house  by  sheds  or  covered  pass- 
ageways is  a  great  convenience  in  cold  and  stormy 
weather,  but  the  connection  should  not  be  of  such 
heavy  construction  that  it  may  not  be  easily  pulled 
down  in  case  of  fire  in  either  end. 

The  living-rooms  should  be  upon  the  south  where 
there  is  plenty  of  sunlight  and  pleasing  views.  Here  the 
members  of  the  family  spend  a  large  part  of  their  time 
and  everything  possible  should  be  done  to  make  all  con- 
ditions pleasant  and  healthful.  If  there  are  any  rooms 
into  which  the  sun  does  not  shine  let  them  be  the  dining- 
room,  which  is  occupied  but  a  short  time  three  times  each 
day,  or  ttye  parlor,  which  may  not  be — but  should  be — 
opened  upon  more  than  "state  occasions."  We  cannot 
expect  to  combine  in  any  one  place  all  of  the  desirable 
features  above  mentioned. 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  55 

An  Abundance  of  Windows. 

Nothing  adds  so  much  to  the  healthfulness  of  a  house 
as  an  abundance  of  sunshine.  At  the  present  price  of 
glass,  and  low  cost  for  making  sash,  glass  surfaces  will 
cost  but  little  if  any  more  than  the  same  surface  covered 
with  wood  and  plastering  and  kept  painted  and  papered, 
while  the  glass  surface  unless  broken  will  cost  less  to 
keep  in  repair.  A  space  covered  with  a  single  thickness 
of  glass  will  not  be  as  warm  as  one  lined,  papered,  and 
clapboarded  on  the  outside  and  plastered  and  papered 
on  the  inside,  but  storm  windows  are  comparatively 
inexpensive  and  will  last  a  lifetime  if  taken  off  every 
spring  and  stored  in  a  dry  place  during  the  summer. 

The  Water  Supply. 

As  previously  urged  the  water  supply  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  Old  wells  should  be  looked  upon  with  sus- 
picion, and  new  ones  if  made  should  be  located  where 
no  foul  matter  will  run  into  them.  The  supply  should  be 
abundant  and  continuous,  if  possible,  without  the  labor 
of  pumping  or  carrying  a  long  distance. 

HOUSES  OF  WOOD. 

One  of  the  first  questions  to  be  settled  after  deciding 
to  build  a  new  house  is,  of  what  material  shall  it  be — 
wood,  brick,  stone,  or  cement  (concrete)  ?  The  present 
cost  of  lumber  and  other  materials  makes  houses  of  wood 
very  expensive,  yet  there  is  nothing  more  satisfactory 
than  a  well  located  and  well  built  house  of  wood.  It  is 
warm  and  dry,  and  when  the  sills  are  carried  high  upon 
a  good  foundation,  with  a  well  ventilated  space  or  cellar 
under  it,  and  the  outside  kept  thoroughly  painted,  and 
in  repair,  such  houses  may  be  made  to  last  a  century  or 
more. 


56  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

If  the  location  is  in  the  country  where  native  lumber 
is  obtainable,  good  building  material  may  often  be  ob- 
tained at  a  much  less  cost  than  that  from  the  North  or 
West,  especially  if  one  has  teams  and  can  draw  it  to  and 
from  the  mill.  Native  lumber  is  generally  not  as  true 
and  free  from  knots  as  that  sawn  from  large  old  trees 
and  sorted  and  graded  before  it  is  shipped  to  the  dealers, 
yet  for  sills,  posts,  lining  and  roof-boards,  lining  of 
floors,  sheathing  and  floors  in  stables,  etc.,  is  as  good 
and  can  be  purchased  at  first  hand  sometimes  at  half  the 
cost. 

The  Frame. 

Lumber  for  frames  may  be  of  chestnut,  spruce,  pine, 
etc.,  the  first  especially  for  sills  where  there  is  much 
moisture  and  the  others  for  the  frame  above  the  sills. 

Cover  Boards. 

The  cheapest  cover  boards  for  sides  and  roof  are  native 
pine  or  hemlock,  the  latter  only  largely  obtained  from 
northern  sections,  where  it  grows  to  perfection.  The 
shingles  most  used  are  of  cedar,  of  which  there  are 
many  grades  offered  by  dealers.  The  extras  and  No.  i 
clear  butts  are  most  used  for  roofs,  though  special  lots 
of  No.  2  clears  may  be  found  with  but  few  knots  in 
them  and  sound  and  very  serviceable.  This  grade  of 
shingles  is  largely  used  for  covering  the  sides  of  poultry 
houses  and  other  outbuildings.  Other  materials  for  roofs 
were  discussed  in  the  previous  chapter,  which  see.  For 
corner  boards,  saddle  boards,  window  casings  outside, 
spruce  and  pine  are  most  used,  with  clapboards  of 
spruce,  and  cedar  shingles  for  covering  the  sides,  the 
latter  being  used  largely  on  low  modern  houses. 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  57 

The  Finish  Inside. 

For  window  casings  and  other  finish  inside  many 
kinds  of  wood  are  used.  Of  the  native  northern  lumber 
extra  quality  of  spruce  is  sometimes  used.  White  ash  is 
much  used  and  makes  a  beautiful  and  lasting  finish  in 
natural  wood  colors.  Cypress  is  coming  into  extensive 
use  in  modern  houses  of  medium  cost,  and  when  care- 
fully selected  most  beautiful  natural  wood  finish  may  be 
obtained.  Birch,  butternut,  black  walnut,  black  cherry, 
oak,  etc.,  are  used  either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
others  with  pleasing  effect.  Of  the  native  southern 
lumber,  the  cypress,  hard  pine,  tulip  wood,  magnolia, 
sweet  gum,  etc.,  makes  a  very  satisfactory  finish.  When 
the  finish  is  to  be  painted  clear  pine,  cypress,  and  spruce 
are  largely  used.  Window  frames  and  casings  and  other 
inside  finish  are  now  made  at  factories  at  very  reasonable 
prices  all  ready  to  put  up,  and  also  doors,  sash  and 
blinds,  thus  reducing  both  the  cost  and  the  time  it  takes 
to  build.  By  carefully  selecting  beautifully  marked 
boards  or  those  of  special  colors  for  the  doors,  casings, 
etc.,  beautiful  effects  may  be  obtained. 

Floor  Boards. 

Most  modern  floors  are  made  of  hard  wood  to  be  fin- 
ished in  natural  wood  colors,  but  where  they  are  to  be 
painted  cypress,  spruce  and  pine  are  used.  Boards  in 
narrow  widths  used  in  hard  wood  floors  are  much  more 
even  and  durable  than  wide  ones,  though  the  narrower 
the  boards  the  greater  will  be  the  waste  and  the  cost  of 
labor  in  laying.  Floor  boards  should  be  kiln  dried  and 
be  laid  at  once  after  coming  from  the  kiln.  With  nicely 
fitted  flooring  any  one  fairly  skilled  in  the  use  of  tools 
may  lay  a  good  floor,  but  if  fancy  designs  and  various 
colors  are  worked  into  them  it  can  only  be  done  with 
success  by  those  who  can  make  very  exact  and  close- 


58  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

fitting  joints.  Of  the  wood  used,  hard  pine,  oak,  maple, 
birch  and  black  walnut  are  the  most  popular.  By  the 
use  of  several  kinds  or  shades  01  these  woods  very  pleas- 
ing effects  are  produced. 

Finishing  Floors. 

Much  of  the  beauty  and  durability  of  floors  depends 
upon  how  they  are  finished.  The  most  beautiful  and 
durable  floors  are  those  upon  which  but  little  dressing 
has  been  used  and  that  thoroughly  rubbed  in,  filling 
the  pores  yet  preserving  the  natural  grain  of  the  wood. 

The  best  substance  for  filling  the  pores  or  grain  is 
rather  thin  white  shellac  rubbed  down  to  a  dead  finish. 
Two  or  three  coats  may  be  needed  if  the  wood  is  very 
porous,  like  birch.  After  a  thorough  rubbing  down  a 
thin  coat  of  wax  or  oil  should  be  applied.  If  oil  is  used 
a  large  amount  of  drier  should  be  added  and  the  floor 
rubbed  until  the  surface  is  dry  and  will  not  soil  the  hand 
when  passed  over  it.  Wax  should  be  put  on  with  a 
heavy  weight  that  will  leave  but  a  very  thin  and  smooth 
surface. 

-    STONE,  BRICK  AND  CEMENT  HOUSES. 

With  the  price  of  lumber  going  higher  every  year,  we 
must  look  about  for  cheaper  material  with  which  to 
build.  Stone  and  brick  are  no  cheaper  than  wood, 
owing  to  the  high  price  of  labor.  An  ordinary  laborer 
who*  becomes  a  skilled  workman  after  a  few  weeks  and 
can  work  with  the  trowel  or  hammer  and  chisel,  de- 
mands $4.00  per  day  for  eight  hours'  work.  This,  with 
the  efforts  of  the  trusts  to  secure  a  monoply  of  all  neces- 
sities that  they  may  increase  prices  to  enable  them  to 
pay  large  dividends,  will  be  sure  to  keep  these  materials 
on  a  par  with  wood.  This  may  be  said  also  of  steel  and 
iron,  which  enter  so  largely  into  the  construction  of 
large  structures. 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  61 

Brick  Houses. 

Even  if  brick  were  available  at  a  more  moderate  cost, 
and  labor  was  reasonable  in  price,  this  material  seems 
out  of  place  in  the  country  and  has  little  to  recom- 
mend it  above  wood  (Fig.  12). 

Stone  Houses. 

A  stone  house  (Fig.  14)  is  more  in  keeping  with  country 
surroundings  but  is  also  open  to  the  objection  that  the 
cost  of  labor  first  in  getting  out  the  stone,  and  then  in 
building,  makes  it  almost  prohibitive  to  those  of  ordi- 
nary means.  A  brick  house  may  be  made  with  a  hollow 
wall,  but  a  house  of  ordinary  stone  must  be  made  solid, 
and  additional  furring  and  lining  inside  must  be  used  to 
keep  it  dry  and  warm.  Rustic  stone  is  largely  used  in 
the  construction  of  the  foundations  and  first  story  of 
dwellings  and  is  in  keeping  with  the  natural  country 
surroundings;  but  this  is  open  to  the  objection  that  the 
walls  must  be  made  thick  and  a  frame  or  furring  be  put 
inside  to  keep  the  house  dry  and  warm.  With  the  in- 
creased cost  in  building  material  persons  of  ordinary 
means  are  looking  for  something  cheaper  than  stone, 
brick,  or  wood,  and  as  a  large  percentage  of  the  cost  of 
building  is  the  labor,  some  system  is  needed  by  which 
material  of  low  cost  may  be  put  together  by  the  owner  or 
by  ordinary  labor.  This  problem  seems  to  be  in  a  fair 
way  of  being  solved  by 

Cement  or  Concrete  Buildings. 

A  material  that  is  now  attracting  much  attention  for 
buildings  of  moderate  cost,  is  Portland  cement  and 
sand.  This  material  is  found  in  many  sections  of  the 
country.  It  is  sold  at  a  very  reasonable  price  and  if 
trusts  are  not  allowed  to  obtain  a  monopoly  of  the 


62 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


supply  it  should  be  even  cheaper,  and  will  be  largely 
used  for  structures  of  small  or  medium  size.  As  stated 
above,  the  cost  is  low  in  comparison  with  other  build- 
ing materials,  and  much  of  the  labor  of  building  can  be 
done  by  the  owner  or  his  regular  help  if  fairly  skilled  in 
the  use  of  tools  and  such  materials.  Good  brands  of 


FIG.  13— The  Construction  of  a  Solid-Wall  Concrete  House, 
Reinforced  by  Steel  Rods. 

Portland  cement  fresh  from  the  kiln  mixed  with  from 
one  to  three  parts  of  clean  sharp  sand  will  make  solid 
walls  or  blocks,  practically  as  durable  as  brick  or  cut 
stone. 

The  Solid  Wall. 

Two  methods  of  construction  of  cement  buildings  are 
in  use — solid  walls,  and  the  block  system.  By  the  first, 
solid  walls  are  made  by  putting  up  a  frame  of  plank  very 
nicely  fitted  and  filling  the  space  with  the  mixed  cement, 
sand  and  stones,  raising  the  frame  as  each  layer  of 
cement  becomes  hard  until  the  walls  are  of  the  desired 
height.  Fig.  13  shows  the  construction  of  a  solid  wall 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  65 

reinforced  with  steel  rods  and  Fig.  15  a  section  of  a 
house  with  solid  walls. 

The  difficulty  of  building  the  walls  in  this  way  is  that 
being  porous,  moisture  and  cold  readily  pass  through 
and  the  inner  surface  can  only  be  made  warm  and  dry 
by  building  up  an  inner  frame  or  putting  up  furring  upon 
which  to  plaster,  leaving  an  air  space  between  the  wall 
and  the  inside  surface.  In  building  up  walls  in  this  way 
more  or  less  large  stones  are  sometimes  laid  and  the 
cement  filled  in,  carefully  working  it  in  and  about  them 
so  that  no  air  spaces  will  hold  to  the  plank  or  stones. 

The  Block  System. 

By  the  block  system  the  cement  is  put  into  moulds 
of  the  desired  form  and  size  for  the  various  parts  of  the 
building.  These  blocks  may  be  made  to  represent  cut  or 
rough  stone,  the  corners,  window  frames,  sills,  and  caps, 
etc.,  being  either  plain  or  ornamented.  Air  spaces  are 
obtained  by  having  vertical  openings  which  shall  be 
continuous  from  underpinning,  or  by  having  the  walls 
made  of  double  blocks  with  narrow  boards  or  planks 
placed  perpendicularly  at  the  joints,  thus  making  an 
entirely  hollow  wall.  The  latter  makes  by  far  the  best 
non-conducting  wall  and  the  blocks  are  less  complicated 
in  structure,  though  double  the  number  are  required  in 
the  building.  One  of  the  advantages  of  the  block  system 
is  that  a  few  blocks  may  be  made  at  a  time  as  one  has 
the  leisure,  and  are  just  as  good,  possibly  better,  if  one 
is  a  year  in  making  enough  for  a  house.  Fig.  16  illus- 
trates a  house  made  of  concrete  blocks,  and  Fig.  17  a 
machine  by  which  the  blocks  are  made. 

The  Cement  and  Sand. 

Good  work  cannot  be  made  of  cement  more  than  six 
months  old  as  it  is  ordinarily  kept,  but  if  it  has  been 


66 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


Fio.  15 — Section  of  a  Concrete  Fire-Proof  House  with  Solid  Walls 
Reinforced  with  Steel  Rods. 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES 


67 


stored  in  a  perfectly  dry  place  and  at  an  even  tem- 
perature it  may  retain  its  strength  a  much  longer  time. 
The  best  brands  only  should  be  used,  especially  for  the 
blocks  and  trimmings,  and  if  possible  its  quality  and 
strength  should  be  tested  before  using. 

The  sand  used  should  be  clean  and  sharp.  Freedom 
from  organic  matter  may  be  tested  by  putting  a  small 
quantity  in  a  pail  with  clean  water,  giving  it  a  rapid 


FIG.  1&— A  Cement  Concrete  House,  made  of  Hollow  Blocks. 

stirring,  and  pouring  off  quickly,  the  organic  matter  will 
soon  settle  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  into  which  it  is 
poured.  The  sharpness  of  the  sand  may  be  determined 
by  examining  its  particles  with  a  magnifying  glass. 
The  coarser  the  sand,  if  of  an  even  grade,  the  better. 
Fine  broken  stone  when  it  can  be  obtained  is  better 
than  sand.  Very  coarse  sand,  gravel  or  broken  stone 
should  also  be  used  with  the  fine  sand  and  cement. 


68 


THE  '  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


Mixing  Cement  and  Sand. 

In  making  a  solid  wall  or  blocks  of  cement  it  should 
be  with  the  idea  that  they  are  to  last  for  centuries,  but 
this  cannot  be  unless  cement  of  the  best  quality  is  used 
and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  best  of  sand.  In  mix- 
ing, a  layer  of  sand  (two,  three  or  four  parts)  is  spread  out 


FIG.  17 — A  Machine  for  Making  Hollow  Concrete  Blocks. 

evenly  on  the  bottom  of  the  mortar-bed;  one  part  of 
cement  is  spread  evenly  over  it,  and  then  the  mass  is 
shovelled  over  back  and  forth  until  thoroughly  mixed, 
when  water  is  added  and  the  mass  is  given  another 
thorough  mixing.  For  making  solid  walls  or  laying  up 
rustic  stone,  cement  should  be  as  soft  as  it  can  be  made 
to  hold  to  the  stones  and  should  be  used  as  soon  as  made. 
For  the  moulds,  what  is  called  the  dry  mixture  is  most 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  69 

used — just  water  enough  to  thoroughly  mix  the  sand 
and  cement;  and  when  tamped  into  the  mould  a  little 
water  will  stand  on  the  surface.  When  the  cement  in 
the  mould  is  sufficiently  set  the  mould  is  unlocked,  the 
block  carefully  taken  out  and  placed  in  the  shade  or  a 
moist  room  and  sprinkled  a  few  times  until  thoroughly 
hard.  Soft  cement  may  be  poured  into  the  mould  and 
when  fully  set — in  a  day  or  two — it  is  taken  out  and  the 
mould  refilled.  This,  however,  is  a  slow  process. 

Concrete  walls,  either  solid  or  of  hollow  blocks,  are 
very  desirable  for  stables  and  other  outbuildings,  espe- 
cially for  the  foundation,  basement,  and  first  story, 
where  there  is  a  large  amount  of  moisture,  which  would 
rot  a  building  made  of  wood.  It  makes  very  clean  and 
serviceable  floors  for  stables,  carriage  and  tool  rooms. 
Sidewalks  are  now  largely  made  of  this  material,  some 
cities  having  miles  of  it  that  will  apparently  be  as  durable 
as  cut  stone.  This  material  is  very  valuable  for  floors  of 
outhouses,  cellars,  wood-sheds,  etc. 

HEATING  THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE. 

Country  houses  are  generally  more  difficult  and  more 
expensive  to  heat  than  those  in  thickly  settled  villages 
or  towns,  in  part  perhaps  because  of  their  cheap  con- 
struction, but  more  because  of  their  exposure.  A  house 
built  of  good  material,  closely  fitted,  and  lined  with 
paper  over  the  entire  covered  surface,  ought  not  to  be 
difficult  or  unusually  expensive  to  heat  unless  fully 
exposed  to  prevailing  winds.  One  of  the  most  important 
points  to  be  considered  in  the  plan  of  the  house  is  the 
method  of  heating. 

Wood  Fires. 

In  the  country  where  wood  is  abundant  and  cheap  the 
year's  supply  may  often  be  obtained  by  thinning  out 
the  poor  and  surplus  growth  from  the  wood-lot,  and  if 


jo  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

one  has  sufficient  area  the  supply  can  be  cut  and  the 
lot  improved  with  each  yearly  cutting.  The  heat  from 
wood  is  less  lasting  than  that  from  coal,  and  the  work  of 
attending  the  fires  much  greater.  Where  wood  is  used 
it  should  be  stored  where  it  may  be  easily  reached. 
Wood  must  be  burned  in  close  stoves  to  be  economical 
of  heat,  but  in  such  stoves — airtights — the  oxygen  of  the 
air  is  quickly  exhausted  unless  there  is  adequate  ven- 
tilation through  a  fire-place  or  open  spaces  into  the 
chimney  near  the  floor.  Large  cast-iron  airtight  stoves 
are  now  made  in  which  may  be  burned  large  sticks  of 
one  or  two  cuts  which  will  last  a  long  time  and  keep  up 
an  even  heat.  Coal  stoves  for  heating  living-rooms 
are  open  to  some  of  the  objections  urged  against  the 
wood  stove,  but  they  take  up  less  space  and  the  heat  is 
more  even.  Where  one  must  buy  wood  its  cost,  includ- 
ing cutting  up  for  the  stove,  will  in  most  localities  be 
equal  that  of  coal. 

Furnace  Heat. 

A  large  amount  of  labor  is  required  to  keep  stoves 
running  in  several  rooms  of  a  house  and  the  consequent 
dirt  and  dust  is  very  annoying.  In  the  more  com- 
fortable modern  country  houses  we  now  find  the  heating 
done  by  one  large  furnace  or  boiler  in  the  cellar  or  base- 
ment. By  this  method  only  one  fire  is  kept  up,  and 
where  the  coal  or  wood  is  stored  close  to  the  furnace 
little  or  no  more  work  will  be  required  to  run  it  than 
would  a  single  stove  in  the  rooms  above,  where  all 
of  the  fuel  is  carried  up  and  the  ashes  taken  out  every 
day.  With  tight  floors  and  well-fitted  registers  and 
pipes  all  the  dust  and  dirt  are  kept  from  the  rooms 
above. 


BUILDING  NEW  HOUSES  71 

THREE  SYSTEMS  OF  HEATING — HOT  AIR,  HOT 
WATER,  AND  STEAM. 

Heated  air  passing  directly  from  outdoors  to  the 
rooms  to  be  warmed  is  the  ideal  heat  if  it  is  not  passed 
over  a  too  hot  surface  which  burns  the  air  as  in  the  ordi- 
nary hot-air  furnace.  The  indirect  hot-air  heat  is  pro- 
duced by  passing  cold  air  from  outside  over  surfaces 
of  hot  water  or  steam-heated  pipes,  and  is  not  open  to 
the  objection  of  the  ordinary  hot-air  furnace,  but  the 
cost  of  heating  by  this  method  is  much  greater.  An- 
other objection  to  a  hot-air  furnace  is  that  we  cannot 
always  direct  the  heat  where  it  is  most  needed  under  all 
conditions  of  weather. 

Hot-Water  Heat. 

Heated  water  distributed  through  small  pipes  to 
radiators  or  stacks  in  the  rooms  to  be  heated  gives  a 
very  economical  and  pleasant  heat.  It  can  be  carried 
to  the  exact  point  where  needed  and  little  or  much  heat 
may  be  produced,  according  to  the  extent  of  radiating 
surface  or  the  temperature  of  the  water.  Two  kinds  of 
boilers  are  used  for  water  heating — the  wrought-iron, 
with  tubes,  and  the  cast-iron  boilers  of  many  different 
forms.  The  wrought-iron  boiler  is  generally  considered 
the  most  economical  of  heat  while  new  and  if  kept  clean, 
but  in  moist  cellars  scales  of  rust  soon  form  on  the 
inner  surface  under  which  are  air-spaces  that  keep  the 
heat  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  inner  or  water 
surface  of  the  boiler,  and  after  a  few  years  the  boiler  will 
need  renewing. 

Cast-iron  boilers  may  be  used  with  less  risk  in  wet 
cellars,  as  the  surface  does  not  rust  in  scales  and  the 
heat  will  pass  through  the  rusted  iron  almost  as  readily 
as  if  it  were  new. 


72  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Most  of  the  modern  cast-iron  boilers  used  for  house 
and  greenhouse  heating  are  made  in  sections,  so  that  a 
small  number  of  sections  are  used  for  small  buildings 
and  more  are  added  for  larger  ones.  Another  advantage 
claimed  for  sectional  boilers  is  that  if  one  section  cracks 
or  is  in  any  way  defective  it  can  be  replaced  without 
buying  an  entire  new  boiler. 

Steam  Heat. 

Where  a  large  amount  of  heat  is  required  steam  is, 
however,  very  satisfactory.  If  a  small  amount  of  heat 
is  needed  it  can  be  obtained  only  by  running  steam 
through  a  small  number  of  pipes.  No  heat  can  be 
circulated  in  the  pipes  until  the  water  gets  above  212°, 
and  all  heat  is  lost  when  it  falls  below  this.  The  cost 
of  piping  for  steam  heat  is  less  than  that  for  hot  water. 

With  steam  and  hot-water  heating  no  provision  is 
generally  made  for  introducing  fresh  air  into  the  rooms. 
But  if  the  building  is  loosely  built  or  ventilation  is  pro- 
vided for  by  an  opening  into  the  chimney  near  the 
floor,  the  foul  air  will  be  rapidly  replaced  by  that  from 
outside. 


CHAPTER   IV 


THE  DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS 


"  Be  it  ever  so  humble 
There's  no  place  like  home." 

THE  more  of  beauty  and  comfort  there  is  about 
the  home  the  better  one  can  stand  the  trials  of 
life,  the  more  enthusiasm  and  energy  one  can 
put   into  the  work  of    getting    a  living  and    caring  for 
the  loved  ones  in  the  home,   and  helping  those   about 
him. 

Preserve  all  Naturally  Beautiful  Features. 

There  are  very  few  homes  about  which  there  are  not 
more  or  less  attractive  features.  All  of  these  should  be 
studied  carefully  and  nothing  be  destroyed  or  changed 
without  good  reasons.  The  rocks,  trees,  shrubs,  vines, 
woods  in  the  immediate  surroundings  of  one's  own  place, 
and  the  distant  views  of  hills,  meadows,  or  water,  should 
be  kept  distinctly  in  mind  in  all  the  work  of  changing 
and  improving  or  planting,  so  that  none  be  covered  up 
or  destroyed.  If  there  are  unsightly  objects  near  we 
must  study  how  not  to  expose  them  to  view  or  to  hide 
them  if  conspicuous.  We  should  preserve  and  improve 
the  natural  growth  of  trees  and  not  cut  one  down  with- 
out due  consideration.  It  takes  a  long  time  to  grow 
newly-planted  trees  to  the  size  to  afford  shade  or  pro- 
duce much  of  beauty,  and  we  should  make  the  most  of 
any  already  standing.  It  is  generally  the  case  that 
trees  growing  naturally  along  the  roadside,  in  the  hedge- 

73 


74 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


rows  or  other  neglected  places,  are  well  established  in 
good  soil;  and  with  a  little  care,  a  little  manure,  fertil- 
izer or  mulch  during  the  dry  weather  of  summer,  they 
will  start  into  a  most  vigorous  growth  and  reach  ma- 
turity much  quicker  than  those  transplanted  from  other 
places.  Trees  under  these  conditions  are  often  of  very 
imperfect  shape  and  may  require  heroic  treatment  to 
put  them  into  condition  for  ornamental  uses.  When 
trees  are  growing  close  together  the 
branches  are  set  very  high  on  the 
trunk,  thus  making  it  difficult  to  pro- 
duce a  low  headed,  well  formed  tree. 
This  is  overcome  by  pruning  as  in 
Fig.  1 8.  If  a  close  growth  in  the  form 
of  a  grove  is  not  desired,  we  must  thin 
out  the  poorest,  leaving  such  as  may 
be  desired,  and  by  cutting  back  the 
top,  as  here  illustrated,  sometimes 
with  small  trees  to  a  bean  pole  con- 
dition, start  a  new  head  at  the  desired 
height.  Larger  trees  with  several 
main  branches  may  be  treated  in  a 
similar  manner,  cutting  these  branches 
back  to  stubs  a  foot  or  more  in  length, 
FIG.  is— A  Tail  Young  from  which  new  branches  will  soon 
StonTto^bSck' to  start.  After  cutting  back  in  this 

make  it  Branch  Low.    manner     the     ends    Qf    the  CUtS  should 

be  covered  with  paint  to  prevent  decay.  When  the 
new  sprouts  begin  to  grow  from  the  top  of  the  pole, 
or  the  stubs,  they  should  be  carefully  examined  and 
the  ends  of  all  not  needed  to  form  a  good  head — three 
or  four  from  each  top  or  stub — pinched  back  so  as  to 
force  the  growth  where  it  is  desired.  There  should  be 
one  central  shoot  or  leader  and  three  or  four  side  branches 
well  distributed  on  all  sides  of  the  top,  and  thus  a  well- 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS 


75 


formed  head  or  top  is  established.  If  these  shoots  grow 
close  together  or  all  upon  one  side  the  top  will  soon 
break  or  split  down  and  the  tree  be  ruined.  Deciduous 
trees  only  can  be  treated  in  this  way.  Evergreens  do 
not  readily  send  out  side  shoots  when  the  branches  are 
all  removed,  but  if  the  lower  branches  are  fairly  good 
they  may  be  improved  by  cutting  back  the  leader  (Figs. 
19  and  20),  thus  forcing  growth  into  those  that  remain. 


FIG.  19 — A  Norway  Spruce  with  the 
Leading  Shoot  Cut  Off  to  Force 
Growth  into  the  Lower  Branches. 


FIG.  20 — The  Result  of  Cutting  Off 
the  Leading  Shoot. 


Evergreens  with  long  bare  trunks  are  not  considered  as 
beautiful  as  those  with  the  lower  branches  sweeping  the 
ground,  but  they  possess  a  kind  of  beauty  of  their  own 
and  in  the  grove  the  removal  of  the  lower  branches 
becomes  a  matter  of  necessity  to  let  in  the  light 
and  air. 

Trees  that  have  been  planted  by  the  roadside  but  are 
now  in  bad  condition  from  neglect  may  be  improved  by 
the  method  suggested  for  those  of  natural  growth. 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


Trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  grow  two  main  leaders, 

and  are  beginning 
to  split  at  the 
fork,  should  be  at- 
tended to  at  once 
and  bolts  with  large 
nuts  or  washers  put 
through  and  the 
crack  drawn  close 
together,  when  in 
a  few  years  the 
wound  will  be 
healed  over,  cover- 
ing bolt, -head  and 
all.  Fig.  21  shows 
the  result  that 
will  come  to  trees 
with  forked  main 
branches. 


FIG.  21 — Forked  Branch  of  Tree  Broken  Down 
by  Ice,  Repaired  and  Supported  by  Rod. 


Time  for  Pruning. 

Most  trees  may  be  pruned  at  any  time  when  the  leaves 
are  off,  but  those  that  flow  sap  freely — the  walnuts, 
maples,  birches — had  better  be  pruned  late  in  the  fall 
or  in  the  spring  after  the  buds  begin  to  swell.  Ever- 
greens may  be  pruned  at  any  time  without  serious 
injury  except  when  frozen,  at  which  time  the  wound  is 
rough  and  broken  and  does  not  heal  as  readily  as  when 
pruned  in  early  summer.  If  pruned  late  in  the  summer 
there  will  be  little  healing  growth  formed  before  winter 
and  the  wound  will  grow  larger  by  freezing  and  thawing. 
All  wounds  upon  deciduous  trees  should  be  covered  at 
once  with  a  thick  coat  of  linseed  oil  paint,  shellac,  or 
coal  tar.  The  first  is  most  easily  obtained  and  applied 
and  is  as  good  a  preservative  as  either  of  the  others.  A 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS 


77 


second  coat  should  be  applied  to  large  wounds  after  the 
first  has  hardened.  Evergreens  exude  a  pitch  or  resin- 
ous covering  where  injured  and  need  not  be  so  protected. 

Planting  New  Trees. 

A  greater  part  of  the  decorating  about  country  places 
is  done  by  setting  out  new  trees  and  shrubs.  Most  of 
these  come  from  nurseries  and  are  set  in  stiff,  formal 
rows  along  the  streets  and  avenues,  or  along  boundary 
lines.  Planted  along  the  roadside,  they  afford  shade 
from  the  hot  sun  in 
the  summer  and  in 
some  places  shelter 
from  driving  wind 
storms.  An  avenue 
of  trees  leading  from 
the  road  to  a  dwel- 
ling some  distance 
back  is  also  a  thing 
of  beauty,  but  one  of 
rather  formal  charac- 
ter, though  desirable 
unless  some  beautiful 
view  is  cut  off  by  it. 
More  pleasing  effects 
may  be  produced  if 
the  trees  are  arranged  more  or  less  in  groups,  in  some 
places  covering  up  undesirable  objects  or  views  and  in 
others  enhancing  the  beauty  of  objects  by  a  setting  of 
striking  foliage.  Large  fine  specimen  trees  standing 
near  the  house  as  in  Fig.  22,  should  be  most  carefully 
preserved.  Very  old  trees,  often  with  decayed  trunks, 
if  still  vigorous,  may  be  preserved  a  long  time  by  dig- 
ging out  the  dead  loose  centres,  painting  with  linseed 
oil  paint,  and  then  filling  with  concrete. 


FIG.  22 — A  Perfect  Purple  Beech  Tree,  the 
result  of  Good  Soil,  a  Northern  Exposure, 
and  Plenty  of  Room. 


78  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Some  of  the  Best  Street  or  Avenue  Trees. 

Among  the  most  largely  and  easily  grown  street  or 
avenue  trees  the  elm  may  be  ranked  as  the  best.  Its 
high  arching  branches  afford  an  abundant  shade  and  yet 
allow  a  free  circulation  of  air  under  them.  The  sugar 
maple,  red  and  white  or  silver  maple,  tulip  tree,  red  and 
pin  oak,  cucumber  magnolia,  all  make  good  street  or 
avenue  trees  but  the  branches  should  be  started  high 
that  they  may  not  interfere  with  travel  as  they  increase 
in  size. 

In  many  states  the  street  planting  is  in  the  hands  of 
one  individual,  known  as  the  Tree  Warden,  and  that 
functionary  assumes  all  the  work  of  planting  and  caring 
for  street  trees.  While  this  may  give  more  uniform 
results,  it  will  generally  be  after  one  idea,  one  plan,  with 
little  or  no  variety,  and  it  takes  away  all  interest  in  such 
work  by  the  abutter,  therefore  little  street  decorating 
will  be  done  under  such  conditions  except  at  the  public 
expense.  But  the  spirit  of  commercialism  and  public 
ownership  should  not  suppress  all  sense  of  individual 
responsibility  for  the  public  good.  A  large  majority  of 
the  beautiful  avenues  and  attractive  roadsides  which 
make  certain  cities,  towns  and  villages  noted  for  their 
beauty,  was  largely  the  work  of  public-spirited  indi- 
viduals who  planted  for  the  love  of  the  work  and  for 
posterity. 

Home  Decorations. 

The  subject  of  decorating  home  grounds  except  in  a 
moderate  way  is  one  too  large  for  the  limits  of  this  vol- 
ume, and  for  more  extended  information  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  author's  work  on  "Landscape  Gardening 
as  Applied  to  Home  Decoration,"  and  other  popular 
works  upon  this  subject. 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  79 

Grading  About  the  Buildings. 

The  first  consideration  after  a  new  house  has  been 
built  is  the  grading  of  the  ground  about  it  and  locating 
such  walks  and  drives  as  are  needed.  In  this  work  aim 
should  be  to  have  an  even,  smooth  grade  away  from  the 
buildings,  so  that  the  surface  water  may  run  off  quickly 
and  not  settle  into  the  ground  about  the  foundation, 
provision  being  made  for  carrying  the  roof  water  away 
in  concrete  or  paved  gutters  or  underground  drains  to 
an  outlet  some  distance  away.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
no  basins  are  formed  where  the  water  will  stand  during 
heavy  rains  or  in  the  winter. 

There  should  be  no  unpaved  gutters  along  the  roads  or 
walks  to  catch  the  water  and  thus  cause  washouts.  In 
grading,  the  coarse  and  poor  material  had  best  be  put 
on  first  and  then  a  top  dressing  of  good  loam  not  less 
than  ten  inches  in  thickness.  A  poor  soil  may  be  so 
improved  that  it  will  grow  good  trees,  shrubs  and  even 
grass,  by  deep  spading  or  plowing  and  working  into  it  a 
large  amount  of  rich  manure  or  fertilizer,  but  the  better 
it  can  be  made  in  the  grading  the  less  after  work  will 
be  required. 

Roads  and  Walks. 

Walks  and  drives  are  a  necessity  for  comfort  on  any 
place,  and  especially  upon  the  farm,  where  more  or  less 
teams  are  kept  and  where  a  large  amount  of  produce  is 
to  be  carried  out  and  supplies  brought  in.  Yet  they  are 
artificial  structures,  expensive  to  build  and  keep  in 
repair. 

Location  of  Roads  and  Walks. 

The  location  of  roads  and  walks  is  a  very  important 
matter.  We  are  planning  these  conveniences  with  the 
idea  of  a  permanent  home,  and  an  unsatisfactory  loca- 
tion means  much  inconvenience,  loss  of  time,  and  hard 


8o 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


FIG.  23— Location 
Drives  and  Walks. 


work.  As  few  roads  and  walks  as  is  possible  should  be 
made,  laid  out  in  graceful  curves,  yet  running  as  directly 
from  -<he  entrance  to  the  points  of 
destinacion, — the  house,  barn,  or  stable, 
as  may  be.  Where  convenient,  the  road 
and  walk  from  the  street  to  the  house 
may  be  combined  and 
made  of  one  material, 
or  the  walk  may  be 
made  of  concrete  but 
occupying  only  one -fourth  or  less  of 
the  same  foundation  with  the  balance 
of  gravel  for  the  road.  This  will  save 
space  for  more  lawn  and  shrubbery, 

etc.    Where  possible  the 
drive  should  come  close 
up    to    the    door   most 
used,  that  all  may  get 
in  and  out  of  the  house 
with  comfort  in  stormy 
weather.     The  arrange- 
ment    of     walks     and 
and  manner    of 
them     out     is 
Figs.  23,  24, 


FIG.  24—  Another  Plan 


drives 
laying 
shown 


n 


FIG.  25— How  to  Lay  Out  Drives  and  Walks.       5 ' 

Underdrain  the  Road-Bed. 

A  good  road  cannot  be  made  of  poor  material,  and  no 
matter  what  material  is  used  a  road  will  be  of  little  per- 
manent value  if  the  soil  is  saturated  with  water.  In 
grading  up  about  the  buildings  the  good  soil  where  the 
road  is  to  be  made  may  be  taken  out  and  replaced  with 
stones  and  very  coarse  gravel.  The  amount  to  be  taken 
out  may  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  If  the 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS 


8i 


loam  is  deep  it  may  be  cheaper  to  get  as  much  as  possible 
from  this  source  and  replace  it  with  stone  or  gravel. 
The  excavation  for  the  road-bed  need  not  be  below  the 
stratum  of  gravel  or  hard-pan,  though  in  the  latter 


FIG.  26 — Section  of  a  Road  with  Tile  upon  Upper  Side  only. 

case  one  line  of  tile  should  be  put  in  at  least  three  and 
one-half  feet  deep,  either  in  the  middle  or  on  one  side — 
the  upper  side,  if  upon  a  side  hill,  as  in  Fig.  26.  On 
very  wet  land  nearly  level  two  lines  of  tile  may  be 
needed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27. 


FIG.  27— Section  of  a  Road  with  Drain  Tile  on  Both  Sides. 

'Coarse  gravel  with  the  larger  stones  raked  into  the 
bottom  of  the  road-bed  will  make  a  good  road  if  under- 
drained.  Broken  stone  if  available  will  make  a  much 
more  permanent  road  than  gravel,  though  it  is  very  ex- 
pensive and  requires  a  heavy  steam  roller  to  compact 
the  different  layers  of  stone.  If  neither  of  the  above 
materials  comes  within  the  means  of  the  owner,  a  well- 
rounded  gravel  road  on  top  of  the  soil  will  serve  a  good 
purpose  in  dry  weather.  When  there  is  but  little  travel 
over  the  road  a  well-compacted  turf  will  be  very  satis- 
factory. To  make  a  turf  road  the  land  is  back-furrowed 
the  desired  width  and  the  rounded  surface  made  fine, 
mellow,  and  rich.  A  liberal  amount  of  lawn-grass  mix- 
ture is  then  sown  and  rolled  in  with  a  heavy  roller. 

6 


82  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

After  the  grass  has  become  well  established  frequent 
rolling  and  cutting  with  a  lawn-mower  will  fit  it  for  the 
use  of  anything  but  heavy  teams.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  have  it  cut  up  by  heavy  teams  during  the  fall  and 
spring.  This  is  pleasant  to  walk  upon  and  is  as  dry  as 
any  walk  except  when  there  is  rain  or  dew.  upon  it.  The 
surface  of  a  walk  should  be  a  little  above  the  level  of 
the  lawn  but  not  enough  to  cause  water  to  gather  upon 
the  inside  of  a  curve  on  a  hillside  and  cause  washing. 
Where  well  underdrained  the  surface  should  be  flat  but 
upon  undrained  land  a  slightly  rounded  surface  is 
necessary. 

To  Keep  Down  the  Weeds. 

Upon  a  road  or  walk  surfaced  with  ordinary  unsifted 
gravel  there  will  be  more  or  less  weeds  during  the  grow- 
ing season  unless  it  is  frequently  gone  over  with  a  weed- 
killer or  hoed  over  with  a  sharp  hoe  with  a  thin  blade. 
If  the  surface  is  dressed  with  three  or  four  inches  of  fine 
screened  gravel  or  fine  broken  stone  few  weeds  will  start 
except  in  very  wet  weather. 

Concrete  Walks  and  Drives. 

When  one  can  afford  the  expense,  concrete  walks, 
either  of  cement  or  asphalt,  will  be  found  cheaper  in  the 
end  if  properly  laid,  but  if  improperly  made  and  upon  an 
undrained  foundation,  will  be  little  or  no  better  than 
one  of  gravel.  The  first  and  most  important  point  in 
this  work  is  the  foundation.  A  durable  walk  or  drive 
cannot  be  made  on  any  soil  saturated  with  moisture  in 
freezing  weather.  Such  soils  must  be  underdrained  with 
either  land  or  Akron  tile,  the  latter  being  much  better 
where  the  soil  is  liable  to  freeze  about  it.  A  stone  drain 
is  sometimes  used,  but  the  writer  has  never  seen  such  a 
drain  that  did  not  fill  up  within  a  few  years. 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  83 

The  directions  for  mixing  cement  concrete  are  the 
same  as  for  concrete  buildings  which  was  described  on 
page  68.  Upon  a  steep  slope  the  surface  of  the  concrete 
should  be  ribbed  to  prevent  slipping  or  the  surface 
covered  with  boards  in  icy  weather.  For  the  foundation 
of  a  cement  concrete  walk  a  dry  mixture  of  from 
four  to  six  parts  of  sand  and  course  gravel  to  one 
of  cement,  from  four  to  six  inches  thick,  is  thoroughly 
tamped  so  as  to  be  smooth  and  level.  Then  a  layer 
of  one  to  two  inches  of  concrete,  two  or  three 
parts  of  sand  to  one  of  cement,  thin  mixed,  so 
as  to  work  easily,  is  spread  over  the  surface  and 
made  smooth.  To  prevent  the  concrete  from  cracking 
irregularly  by  the  action  of  frost  from  below,  it  is  some- 
times made  in  squares  or  sections  with  a  thin  board 
between  the  sections  to  take  up  the  contraction  and  ex- 
pansion. After  laying  cement  concrete  it  should  be  kept 
moist  until  fully  set  by  covering  with  hay,  straw,  mats 
or  even  sawdust,  or  by  sprinkling  two  or  three  times. 

With  tar  concrete  the  first  layer  from  four  to  six  inches 
thick  of  coarse  stones  from  one  to  four  inches  in  diameter 
must  be  made  solid  by  tamping  or  rolling  as  for  the 
foundation  of  cement  concrete,  as  well  as  the  two  suc- 
ceeding layers  of  small  stones.  The  last  layer  is  of  fine 
clean  sand  and  hot  tar,  thoroughly  saturated  and  mixed, 
heavily  rolled  and  then  covered  with  fine  dry  sand  until 
somewhat  hardened.  Concrete  walks  have  the  advan- 
tage that  they  may  be  easily  kept  clean  in  summer  or 
winter  and  no  weeds  will  grow  upon  them,  but  they  are 
often  slippery  in  icy  weather  and  reflect  the  heat  during 
the  summer. 

Screen  the  Walks  and  Drives  With  Shrubbery. 

Where  walks  and  drives  are  wide  and  of  considerable 
length  they  should  in  part  at  least  be  covered  from  view 


84  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

by  grouping  masses  of  shrubs  along  the  border.  These 
are  to  be  placed  so  as  to  screen  the  walks  from  view 
from  the  principal  windows  of  the  house,  from  the  bal- 
cony, veranda  or  bay  windows,  or  from  the  roadway  in 
front  of  the  house.  If  the  place  is  small  these  groups 
of  shrubbery  must  be  small,  in  some  cases  only  a  single 
line  of  plants.  Even  hardy  perennials  will  take  off 
some  of  the  sterile  appearance  of  this  stretch  of  bare 
soil  in  the  midst  of  the  living  green  of  the  lawn. 

Planting  Trees  and  Shrubs. 

With  the  new  house,  the  outside  decorations  are  yet 
to  be  grown,  except  what  may  by  chance  have  been  pre- 
served from  the  roadside  or  hedge- rows,  the  treatment 
of  which  has  been  discussed  on  preceding  pages.  A 
home  without  more  or  less  trees  about  the  buildings  and 
grounds  is  a  forlorn  place,  exposed  to  the  full  heat  of 
the  sun  in  summer  and  storms  and  winds  in  the  win- 
ter. While  newly  planted  trees  and  shrubs  appear  to 
grow  slowly  to  those  waiting  for  their  grateful  shade  it 
is  but  a  comparatively  short  time  before  they  will  give 
an  abundance  of  shade  and  shelter  if  planted  at  the 
earliest  possible  time. 

WHERE  TO  OBTAIN  ORNAMENTAL  TREES 
AND  SHRUBS. 

No  country  in  the  world  is  richer  in  ornamental  trees, 
shrubs,  and  plants  than  ours,  and  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  may  be  found  growing  by  the  roadsides  or  in 
pastures  and  woods,  and  may  be  readily  transplanted  to 
the  house  grounds.  A  large  majority  of  the  trees  which 
we  see  by  the  roadsides  and  along  the  avenues  were 
taken  from  these  places.  Trees  of  sufficient  size  for 
moving  under  the  above  conditions  have  generally  been 
growing  where  found  for  a  considerable  time  and  the 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  85 

fine  fibrous  roots  have  extended  further  from  the  trunk 
each  year  so  as  many  fibrous  roots  will  not  be  obtained 
as  we  find  upon  trees  from  the  nursery  that  have  grown 
more  quickly.  Yet  by  digging  carefully  and  heading 
back  severely  most  of  them  will  grow  and  make  good 
trees.  In  digging  trees  from  these  natural  locations  a 
trench  should  be  cut  a  foot  wide  from  one  to  two  feet 
away  from  the  trunk  and  deep  enough  to  work  the  soil 
out  from  under  the  ends  of  the  roots  and  thus  allow  us 
to  tip  the  tree  over  by  taking  hold  of  the  trunk,  in  this 
way  loosening  the  roots  with  a  ball  of  earth  attached. 
This  ball  may  be  rolled  out  upon  a  stoneboat,  or  put 
upon  a  low  wagon,  and  the  tree  in  this  condition  taken 
to  the  place  of  planting.  In  planting  trees  of  all  kinds  it 
is  as  important  to  have  a  fine  mellow  bed  of  rich  soil  in 
which  to  set  them  as  for  planting  seeds.  A  hole  a  little 
larger  than  the  spread  of  the  roots  should  be  dug  from 
one  to  two  feet  deep,  according  to  the  roots.  The  soil 
in  the  bottom  of  the  holes  should  be  rich,  fine  and  mel- 
low, but  rank  unfermented  manure  or  caustic  fertilizers 
should  not  be  used  in  contact  with  the  roots.  When 
ready  to  plant  place  the  tree  in  the  hole,  which  if  not 
deep  enough  must  be  made  deeper  or  if  too  deep  filled 
up.  When  at  the  proper  level,  so  that  all  the  roots  will 
be  covered,  the  upper  ones  not  less  than  six  inches  deep, 
work  fine  rich  soil  in  about  them  and  press  it  firmly  in 
contact  with  every  root  and  fibre.  When  all  the  roots 
are  covered  and  the  soil  pressed  about  them  the  last  four 
to  six  inches  of  soil  should  be  put  on  lightly,  thus  form- 
ing a  mulch  which  will  hold  the  moisture  under  it  and 
in  contact  with  the  roots  below.  The  tops  of  all  trees 
taken  from  the  roadsides  or  fields  must  be  more  severely 
pruned  than  those  procured  from  nurseries. 


86  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Time  for  Planting. 

The  best  time  for  transplanting  deciduous  trees  is 
early  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring.  Either  of  these 
times  when  the  work  can  be  most  thoroughly  done  is  the 
best.  If  very  large  trees  with  considerable  top  are  set 
out  in  the  fall  they  should  be  well  supported  by  stout 
stakes  driven  deep  into  the  ground  or  wire  guys  run- 
ning to  stout  stakes  set  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Planting  Evergreen  Trees. 

As  these  trees  are  in  foliage  all  the  time  they  may  be 
set  out  at  almost  any  time  when  it  can  be  done  without 
exposing  the  roots  to  dryness  or  breaking  and  destroy- 
ing too  many  of  the  fibres.  Early  summer  after  the 
buds  have  started  and  the  month  of  August  are  the 
times  when  most  evergreens  are  planted.  In  moving 
them  a  moist  day  should  be  selected  and  if  possible  a 
ball  of  soil  should  be  taken  with  each  tree.  If  the  roots 
become  dry  they  will  never  regain  their  vitality  and  the 
tree  dies. 

The  Arrangement  of  Trees  and  Shrubs. 

In  arranging  trees  and  shrubs  about  the  home  place  it 
should  be  done  with  the  aim  to  make  the  most  attrac- 
tive home  picture  possible  and  at  the  same  time  afford 
shelter  from  the  sun  and  protection  from  cold  and  storms. 
The  central  idea  in  grouping  is  to  make  a  pleasing  set- 
ting for  the  buildings  with  the  lawn  in  the  foreground. 
If  the  grounds  are  limited  in  extent  a  few  specimens  only 
can  be  grown  without  too  much  obscuring  the  home 
picture.  A  single  large  old  tree  with  a  well-kept  lawn 
and  a  few  flowering  shrubs  or  plants  will  be  more  satis- 
factory than  a  tangle  of  imperfect  specimens.  If  of 
larger  extent,  a  number  of  varieties  of  trees  may  be  used, 
sometimes  grouping  several  of  one  kind  or  mixing  many 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  87 

kinds  together.  In  this  work  we  must  always  keep  in 
mind  the  beauties  of  the  home  buildings  as  seen  from 
the  outside  and  the  home  and  distant  views  as  seen 
from  the  windows  of  the  principal  rooms,  the  verandas, 
or  porches.  See  Fig.  i. 

Close  Planting  to  be  Avoided. 

When  planting  we  must  keep  in  mind  the  size  of  the 
trees  and  shrubs  when  fully  matured.  While  young 
they  produce  but  little  shade  and  shelter  and  as  all 
desire  immediate  effect  thick  planting  is  generally  done 
with  the  idea  that  we  will  cut  out  all  but  the  few  that 
will  give  the  desired  results  when  mature.  But  few  will 
do  this,  and  all  are  finally  ruined  for  anything  but 
grove  trees;  therefore  it  is  generally  better  to  plant  just 
what  are  needed  permanently  and  it  is  surprising  in 
what  a  comparatively  short  time  trees  with  full  root  and 
air  space  will  reach  mature  size. 

DECIDUOUS   AND   EVERGREEN  TREES. 

Deciduous  trees  are  of  especial  value  for  summer  and 
evergreens  for  winter  decorations,  the  leaves  of  the 
former  shutting  off  the  intense  heat  of  the  summer  sun, 
while  the  latter  shield  us  from  the  fierce  winds  of  winter 
and  afford  a  beautiful  contrast  with  the  bare  and  brown 
trunks  of  the  deciduous  trees.  If  one  has  a  considerable 
area  to  plant,  groves  of  mixed  varieties  are  effective, 
though  an  oak,  chestnut,  or  pine  grove  each  has  char- 
acteristic beauty  that  would  be  lost  in  a  mixed  grove. 
For  such  groves  close  planting  is  desirable,  that  the 
trees  may  grow  tall  and  straight  with  branches  high 
from  the  ground.  Evergreens  make  the  densest  shade 
in  summer,  but  in  winter  are  rather  dark  and  gloomy. 
When  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  an  evergreen 
grove  possesses  great  beauty. 


88  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Fruit  Trees  as  Ornamentals. 

Upon  grounds  of  small  area  as  much  of  beauty  may  be 
produced  from  fruit  trees  as  from  any  of  the  so-called 
ornamentals.  What  can  be  more  ornamental  than  an 
apple,  a  cherry,  peach  or  plum  tree  when  in  bloom,  and 
again  when  in  fruit?  They  are  things  of  beauty  and  a 
source  of  much  pleasure,  and  even  of  profit.  Close  plant- 
ing of  fruit  trees  should  be  avoided,  as  with  ornamentals, 
for  while  the  flowers  and  fruit  may  be  just  as  beautiful 
and  good  up  in  the  tops  of  close  planted  trees,  stretching 
upwards  for  sunlight,  they  are  beyond  our  vision  and 
reach,  while  a  low  headed  tree  is  far  more  beautiful  and 
useful. 

In  thickly-settled  localities  fruit  trees  are  often  a 
source  of  trouble  from  the  attraction  the  fruit  has  for 
"Young  America,"  and  the  cost  of  guarding  against 
loss  from  this  and  other  sources  will  perhaps  make 
other  ornamental  trees  more  desirable. 

LIST  OF  TREES. 

The  following  are  among  the  best  native  trees  that 
may  be  transplanted  from  the  roadsides  and  fields: 

WHITE  ELM,  SCARLET  OAK, 

SLIPPERY  ELM,  WHITE  OAK, 

SUGAR  MAPLE,  MAGNOLIA, 

RED  MAPLE,  CATALPA, 

SILVER  MAPLE,  SYCAMORE, 

MOUNTAIN  ASH,  BEECH, 

BASSWOOD,  HICKORY  (WHITE), 

CANOE  BIRCH,  TULIP  TREE, 

SWEET  BIRCH,  SWEET  GUM, 

WHITE  ASH,  POPLAR  (COTTONWOOD), 

RED  OAK,  KENTUCKY  COFFEE  TREE. 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  89 

Introduced  Trees. 

Most  of  the  following  trees  must  be  obtained  from 
nurseries,  though  sometimes  good  specimens  may  be 
found  by  the  roadsides  or  in  the  fields: 

NORWAY  MAPLES,  HONEY  LOCUST, 

PURPLE  BEECH,  SCHWERDLER'S  MAPLE, 

HORSE  CHESTNUT,  EUROPEAN  LARCH, 

VIRGILEA  (YELLOW  WOOD). 

Evergreen  Trees,  Natives. 

WHITE  PINE,  CANADA  BALSAM, 

WHITE  SPRUCE,  JUNIPER, 

ARBOR  VIT^  (WHITE  CEDAR),  HEMLOCK. 


Evergreen  Trees,  Introduced. 

NORWAY  SPRUCE,  AUSTRIAN  PINE, 

COLORADO  BLUE  SPRUCE,          Swiss  PINE, 
NORDMAN'S  FIR,  JAPANESE   CYPRESS    (Rs- 

TINOSPORA). 

Ornamental  Shrubs. 

No  matter  how  small  a  place  one  may  have,  there  may 
be  room  for  one  or  more  ornamental  shrubs  or  climbing 
vines.  If  the  land  owned  is  only  large  enough  for  the 
buildings  and  the  necessary  walks,  shrubs  may  be 
planted  in  the  angles  of  the  buildings  or  corners  of  the 
fence,  and  vines  may  be  made  to  grow  over  the  gate-way, 
veranda,  or  porch,  or  to  cover  the  walls  of  the  buildings. 
On  the  north  side  we  may  plant  rhododendrons,  or  Eng- 
lish ivies  may  be  made  to  cling  to  the  walls,  while 
nearly  any  of  the  list  on  pp.  94,  95  may  grow  on  the  south, 
east  or  west  if  the  soil  be  made  rich  and  mellow.  In 
some  cases  the  soil  may  be  only  the  gravel  or  clay  ex- 
cavated in  making  the  cellar,  or  dump  material,  which 
must  be  removed  and  replaced  by  good  soil. 


go  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Grouping  of  Shrubs. 

On  places  of  larger  area  shrubs  may  be  arranged  in 
masses  or  groups,  by  the  sides  of  walks  and  drives,  as  a 
setting  in  front  of  the  foundation  of  the  house,  and  in 
the  angles,  in  front  of  outbuildings,  and  bank  walls, 
etc.  They  are  useful  in  carrying  the  mass  of  tree  foliage 
down  to  the  lawn,  and  make  beautiful  low  screens,  for 
hiding  seats,  terraces,  the  vegetable  garden,  or  other 
low  objects.  Where  the  extent  of  the  grounds  will  allow, 
groups  of  shrubs  of  one  kind  will  produce  more  striking 
effects  than  if  many  varieties  are  mingled  together.  Thus 
a  group  or  mass  of  roses,  rhododendrons,  hydrangeas, 
spiraeas,  etc.,  may  be  placed,  one  in  one  corner  of  the 
grounds,  another  in  front  of  the  poultry  house,  another 
in  front  of  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  side  door,  and 
another  in  front  of  a  terrace.  Then  with  a  well-kept 
lawn  with  a  glimpse  of  the  drive  or  walk  here  and  there 
in  view,  we  have  a  more  attractive  picture  than  if  in  the 
groups  of  shrubbery  we  could  see  but  one  or  two  in 
bloom.  Mixed  groups  are  often  desirable  when  close  up 
to  a  much  frequented  veranda,  so  that  something  may 
be  seen  in  bloom  at  all  times  during  the  summer.  Along 
the  roadways  or  on  boundary  lines  between  estates  a 
row  or  border  of  shrubs  marks  the  line  very  prettily. 
These  may  be  set  in  a  straight  line  or  hedge  or  in  an 
irregular  border,  wider  in  some  places  than  in  others. 
If  the  groups  are  large  and  of  many  kinds  those 
growing  the  largest  should  be  set  in  the  middle  or 
if  the  border  is  against  the  boundary  line,  a  building, 
wall  or  terrace,  the  largest  should  be  set  next  the  line 
or  the  object  covered,  the  smaller  ones  grading  down 
to  the  lawn  in  front  (Fig.  28). 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  93 

Hedges. 

Where  the  space  is  narrow  or  where  there  are  other 
formal  features  upon  the  grounds,  the  closely -pruned 
hedge  may  be  used  with  good  effect  especially  on  the 
boundary  line,  but  is  a  difficult  and  expensive  thing  to 
grow  and  keep  in  good  condition,  and  often  furnishes  a 
harbor  for  insects  and  vermin.  A  good  well-kept  hedge 
may  serve  as  a  fence  or  high  screen,  but  those  plants 


FIG.  29 — Low  Shrubs  Planted  in  Front  of  Tall  Ones. 

that  naturally  grow  to  trees  must  be  used,  like  the 
honey  locust,  buckthorn,  osage  orange,  etc.  To  keep 
these  trees  in  a  compact  dwarf  shape  they  must  be 
pruned  several  times  during  each  growing  season.  More 
graceful  hedges  are  made  of  such  plants  as  roses,  spi- 
raeas, weigelas,  lilacs,  Japanese  Barberry,  etc.,  by  a 
more  open  method  of  pruning,  cutting  out  here  and 
there  old  canes  so  that  new  shoots  can  grow  that  will 
give  more  and  larger  flowers  than  the  old  wood. 


94  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Pruning  Shrubs. 

Shrubs  that  bloom  early  in  the  spring,  like  golden 
bell,  spiraeas,  deutzias,  Japanese  quince,  etc.,  should  not 
be  much  pruned  until  after  blossoming.  If  pruned  be- 
fore blooming  many  of  the  flower  buds  are  cut  away. 
Those  that  bloom  later  in  the  season,  from  June  on,  like 
roses,  hydrangea,  hibiscus,  etc.,  should  be  pruned  se- 
verely before  growth  begins.  If  upon  a  rosebush  we 
leave  but  three  or  four  strong  shoots  and  cut  these  back 
to  three  or  four  buds  we  shall  obtain  one  or  more  strong 
shoots  from  each  cane  and  upon  these  there  will  be  a 
good  number  of  very  perfect  flowers,  while  if  the  bush  is 
left  unpruned  we  may  get  a  larger  number  of  smaller 
flowers.  If  we  want  a  large  shrub  and  a  display  of  a 
mass  of  color  we  would  not  prune  much,  but  if  a  fine 
display  of  large  perfect  flowers  is  desired,  we  would 
prune  severely  and  thus  cause  a  limited  number  of 
strong  shoots  to  grow. 

List  of  Shrubs,  Native. 

PINK  AZALEA,  CRANBERRY  SHRUB, 

BARBERRY,  WILD  ROSES, 

CLETHRA,  SWEET  BRIAR. 

List  of  Shrubs,  Introduced. 

AZALEA,  JAPANESE,  EXOCHORDA, 

JAPANESE  QUINCE,  GOLDEN  BELL, 

DEUTZIA,  ROSE  OF  SHARON 

WEIGELA,  HYDRANGEA, 

SPIRAEA,  LILAC, 

JAPANESE  SNOW-BALL,  ROSES, 

JAPANESE   BARBERRY. 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS 


95 


Evergreen  Shrubs. 

NATIVE.  INTRODUCED. 

RHODODENDRONS,  BOXWOOD, 

MOUNTAIN  LAUREL,  ANDROMEDAS. 
AMERICAN  HOLLY. 

CLIMBING  SHRUBS  OR  VINES. 

Among  the  most  beautiful  and  satisfactory  ornamen- 
tals for  country  homes  are  hardy  vines  (Figs.  30  and  31) 


FIG.  30 — A  Beautiful  Shingled  Summer  House. 
A  Good  Support  for  Climbing  Vines. 

There  are  many  varieties,  some  of  which  will  grow  under 
almost  any  condition  of  soil  and  exposure,  and  they  do 
not  need  much  space.  They  can  be  trained  along  fences, 
upon  verandas,  and  the  sides  of  buildings,  or  be  made  to 
cover  arbors  and  summer-houses.  Upon  the  sides  of 
buildings  they  do  best  if  carried  away  from  the  walls 
ten  inches  or  a  foot  upon  wires  or  other  supports. 


96  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Pruning  Climbers. 

Unless  climbers  are  heroically  pruned  every  year  the 
foliage  soon  becomes  so  dense  that  with  close  hot 
weather  mildews  and  blights  often  seriously  injure 

them.  Before  growth 
begins  in  the  spring 
a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  old  wood 
should  be  cut  away 
and  the  space  occu- 
pied by  it  given  to 
vigorous  new  shoots. 
The  best  results 
come  from  summer 
pruning  or  pinching. 
The  ends  of  the  canes 
should  be  kept  tied 
to  their  proper  sup- 
port and  all  shoots 
not  needed  to  cover 
the  trellis  or  support 
be  pinched  off,  thus 
forcing  the  growth 

FIG.  31 — A  Rose-Covered  Porch.  where   most  desired. 

List  of  Climbers. 
NATIVE.  INTRODUCED. 

AMERICAN  WOODBINE,  CLEMATIS,  JACKMAN'S, 

VIRGIN'S  BOWER  (CLEMATIS)  CLEMATIS  PANICULATA, 
BITTER  SWEET,  HONEYSUCKLE  (JAPANESE), 

WISTARIA,  KOKWA  (ACTINIDIA), 

CLIMBING  ROSES,  JAPANESE  WOODBINE. 

ARISTOLOCHIA  (DUTCHMAN'S  PIPE), 
GRAPEVINES,  ETC. 


DECORATION  OF  HOME  GROUNDS  97 

REMOVAL  OF  WALLS  AND  FENCES. 

A  great  transformation  has  taken  place  along  our 
roadsides  and  in  front  of  our  dwellings  in  the  past 
quarter  of  a  century,  resulting  from  the  removal  of 
stone  walls  and  fences.  At  best  these  are  artificial  ob- 
jects and  sooner  or  later  will  become  unsightly.  They 
are  unnecessary  in  most  cases  and  are  expensive  to 
build  and  keep  in  repair.  They  are  more  or  less  a  har- 
bor for  weeds,  mice,  and  vermin,  and  the  space  occu- 
pied by  them  can  be  more  easily  and  satisfactorily 
cared  for  if  the  fences  are  removed.  In  some  cases  they 
are  a  necessity  for  the  protection  of  orchards  and  fruit 
plantations,  but  often  a  conspicuous  fence  acts  only  as 
an  incentive  for  malicious  persons  to  cause  trouble.  If 
a  fence  is  needed  one  of  wire  will  be  more  protective 
and  inconspicuous,  and  when  painted  green  becomes 
ornamental.  Fences  are  of  course  needed  about  land 
pastured  by  cattle  and  horses,  but  each  owner  of  cattle, 
horses,  dogs,  etc.,  is  expected  to  keep  his  stock  at  home 
or  within  the  limits  of  the  street,  and  is  liable  for  any 
damage  they  may  do  while  driven  along  the  highway. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN 


THE  LAWN. 

NO  one  feature  of  the  outside  decoration  of  the 
home  is  of  so  great  importance  as  the  lawn. 
We  may  have   beautiful   buildings,    and   an 
abundance  of  trees  and  shrubs  upon  our  grounds,  but 
if  the  grass  is  poor  the  place  has  an  unkempt  appear- 
ance.     The   lawn    is    the  carpet   or   foreground   upon 
which  the  various  objects  of  beauty  or  comfort   about 
the  place  are  arranged. 

To  make  a  perfect  lawn  easily  and  cheaply  one  must 
have  good  grass  land — i.e.,  a  deep,  strong  loam,  clay 
loam,  or  clay  soil,  well  underdrained.  For  the  most  per- 
fect growth  of  lawn  grasses  the  land  should  be  under- 
drained,  if  springy,  deeply  worked,  and  made  rich  with 
stable  manure  or  suitable  fertilizers. 

Time  for  Sowing  Seed. 

Upon  rich,  moist  soil,  grass  seed  may  be  sown  upon  the 
lawn  at  any  season  of  the  year  with  good  success,  but 
the  spring  from  April  to  June,  or  August  and  Septem- 
ber are  perhaps  the  best  times  for  sowing.  If  the  seed 
starts  later  than  September,  during  the  fall  it  makes 
little  growth,  and  the  roots  not  extending  deeply  dur- 
ing the  winter,  the  little  plants  are  heaved  out  and  we 
have  a  poor  catch.  Then  with  late  fall  seeding,  unless 
the  land  is  well  covered  with  deeply  rooted  plants,  it  is 
likely  to  wash  on  sloping  surfaces.  The  natural  seeding 

98 


LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN  99 

time  for  grasses  is  August  and  September  for  early 
maturing  grasses,  and  the  early  spring  for  seeds  that  are 
scattered  late  in  the  fall. 

Lawn  Grasses. 

The  best  grasses  for  the  lawn  are  June  grass  (Ken- 
tucky blue  grass),  and  red  top,  equal  parts  of  each,  with 
a  little  white  clover  (10  Ibs.  per  acre);  forty  to  fifty 
pounds  of  this  mixture  will  seed  an  acre.  The  seed-bed 
should  be  very  thoroughly  made,  working  the  soil  deep 
and  fine.  It  should  be  smoothed  and  rounded  with  a 
flowing  outline  and  no  perfectly  level  places  except  for 
lawn  tennis  or  croquet  grounds.  Terraces  should  be 
avoided  as  artificial,  difficult  to  make,  and  expensive  to 
keep  in  good  condition.  The  surface  of  a  terrace  will  often 
slide  down  when  the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground 
in  the  spring,  and  it  soon  becomes  uneven,  while  it  is 
difficult  to  cut  the  grass  smoothly.  A  rounded,  even 
though  rather  abrupt  surface  will  remain  solid,  and  the 
grass  may  be  easily  cut  with  the  lawn-mower.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  no  basins  are  formed  that  will  hold 
water  after  heavy  rains  or  during  the  winter,  as  the 
grass  is  often  killed  by  a  close  covering  of  ice. 

Sowing  the  Seed. 

When  the  soil  has  been  satisfactorily  graded  and  a 
seed-bed  of  fine  rich  soil  made,  the  seed  should  be  sown 
evenly  over  the  whole  surface.  To  ensure  even  distri- 
bution of  seed  requires  some  skill,  but  it  can  be  best 
done  by  the  amateur  by  dividing  the  seed  into  two  or 
three  equal  lots.  Then  sow  the  first  lot  over  the  whole 
piece  one  way,  and  rake  in  with  a  long-toothed  iron  rake 
or  potato-hook.  Then  sow  the  second  lot  over  the  whole 
surface  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  after  raking  it  in 
sow  the  remainder  diagonally  over  the  whole  piece.  If 


loo  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

this  is  done  and  the  soil  is  not  bunched  up  in  raking 
the  seed  in,  it  will  be  evenly  sown. 

If  the  lawn  is  shaded  with  large  trees  and  the  ground 
full  of  roots,  a  mixture  of  two  parts  June  grass,  two 
parts  Canada  blue  grass,  one  red,  one  sheep's  fescue,  one 
meadow  fescue,  one  perennial  rye  grass,  and  one  part  of 
white  clover  will  cover  the  surface  better  than  the  ordi- 
nary mixture  given  above. 

Newly  seeded  lawns  must  not  be  cut  with  the  lawn- 
mower  until  the  grass  has  formed  a  firm  sod.  An  ordi- 
nary grass  scythe,  sharp  and  well  handled,  should  be 
used  the  first  two  or  three  times  the  grass  is  cut,  care- 
fully raking  off  all  clippings  as  soon  as  cut. 

After  Care  of  the  Lawn. 

With  proper  care  a  lawn  on  good  soil  should  improve 
with  age.  Each  fall  just  before  the  ground  freezes  a 
thin  dressing  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  should  be 
spread  upon  the  surface  and  raked  sufficiently  to  work 
it  down  among  the  roots.  Coarse  strawy  or  green  ma- 
nure, often  used,  is  not  necessary;  it  is  unsightly  and 
offensive  both  to  those  in  the  house  and  those  passing. 
Each  spring  before  growth  begins  a  light  seeding  of  the 
lawn  grass  mixture  should  be  scattered  over  all  thin  or 
bare  places,  and  a  little  later,  when  growth  has  become 
well  started,  an  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  at  the  rate 
of  200  to  300  Ibs.  per  acre,  or  some  good  lawn  dressing, 
will  be  very  useful.  Another  light  sowing  of  seed  and 
fertilizer  should  be  applied  about  the  middle  or  last  of 
August,  that  they  may  be  washed  down  to  the  grass  roots 
by  the  early  fall  rains. 

Weeds  in  the  Lawn. 

Annual  weeds  like  "finger  grass,"  etc.,  are  soon 
choked  out  by  the  above  method  of  seeding  and  feeding, 
but  biennial  weeds  like  the  dandelion,  chiccory,  chick- 


LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN  J  101 

weed,  money  plant,  etc.,  must  be  dug  out  with  a  forked 
knife  or  digging  tool.  After  digging  out  more  grass  seed 
should  be  sown  over  the  spaces  where  they  were  removed. 

Water  a  Necessity. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  a  perfect  lawn  upon  thin 
soil  without  an  abundant  supply  of  water  especially  in 
dry  times.  A  little  water  applied  to  the  surface  does 
more  harm  than  good  in  dry  time,  as  it  causes  the  roots 
to  grow  toward  the  surface  and  if  the  dry  weather  con- 
tinues the  grass  plants  are  very  much  weakened.  When- 
ever water  is  applied  in  a  dry  time  it  should  be  run  on 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  wet  the  lowest  roots.  A 
sprinkler  run  all  night  in  one  spot  will  not  be  more  than 
enough. 

Improving  Old  Lawns. 

Many  old  lawns  exposed  to  the  hot  sun,  exhausted 
from  want  of  plant  food,  or  from  the  feeding  roots  of 
large  trees,  may  be  improved  without  much  expense,  but 
the  perfect  lawn  cannot  be  expected  under  such  condi- 
tions. If  the  land  is  clear  of  roots  or  other  obstructions, 
it  may  be  plowed  or  spaded  and  renewed  as  described 
for  the  new  lawn.  If  the  land  is  full  of  fine  roots,  with 
the  large  roots  several  inches  below  the  surface,  with  a 
sharp  spade  these  may  be  spaded  up  and  shaken  out  of 
the  soil,  a  liberal  supply  of  fine  manure  worked  in  and 
seeded,  when  we  may  have  a  good  lawn  for  a  few  years, 
after  which  this  process  must  be  repeated.  If  large 
roots  come  near  the  surface,  the  lawn  must  be  improved 
by  surface  dressing.  All  obstructions  that  would  be  in 
the  way  of  the  lawn-mower  should  first  be  removed,  any 
unevenness  of  the  surface  where  possible  should  be 
smoothed  off,  and  then  all  graded  up  with  rich  fine  soil 
into  which  should  be  raked  a  liberal  amount  of  lawn 
grass  seed. 


1O2  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

If  the  surface  is  fairly  level  and  June  grasses  or  other 
good  lawn  grasses  are  already  growing,  dressing  with 
manure  or  fertilizers,  seeding  liberally  fall  and  spring, 
and  frequent  cutting  with  the  lawn-mower  will  often 
produce  a  very  good  lawn.  Of  the  home  supply  of  fer- 
tilizers, poultry  droppings  and  wood  ashes  make  an 
almost  ideal  dressing  for  the  lawn. 

Lawn-Mowers  and  Their  Care. 

With  the  ordinary  grass  scythe,  well  hung  and  skil- 
fully and  frequently  used,  one  may  keep  a  lawn  in  fairly 
good  condition,  but  where  there  is  a  considerable  surface 
to  go  over,  the  lawn-mower  becomes  a  necessity  to  keep 
a  lawn  in  the  best  of  order.  These  tools  may  be  pur- 
chased at  from  $4  to  $10  each,  according  to  size  and 
make,  and  when  properly  used  and  cared  for  may  be 
made  to  last  a  lifetime.  The  modem  lawn-mowers  are 
made  so  that  as  the  blades  come  in  contact  with  the 
shoe  or  "bed  knife,"  the  two  wear  off  together  and  are 
thus  self-sharpening.  If  the  set  screws  for  adjusting  the 
shoe  and  blades  are  set  very  nicely  and  as  wear  takes 
place  are  slightly  turned  down,  no  further  sharpening 
need  be  done  unless  the  blades  or  bed  knife  are  bent  or 
dulled  by  striking  stones  or  other  hard  substances.  Much 
of  the  ease  of  running  and  cutting  with  the  lawn-mower 
depends  upon  this  adjustment  and  in  keeping  all  parts 
cleaned  and  well  oiled.  The  modern  high  wheel,  ball- 
bearing machines  run  more  easily  than  those  of  older 
patterns,  but  neither  will  work  easily  unless  perfectly 
adjusted  and  well  oiled. 

Flowers  Upon  The  Lawn. 

While  the  flower  garden  may  not  add  directly  to  the 
support  of  the  family  upon  the  farm,  like  ornamental 
trees  and  the  fruit  garden  they  help  brighten  many  a 


FIG.  32 — JUST  COMING  FROM  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN. 


LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN  105 

lonely  spot  and  add  much  of  beauty  and  brightness  to 
our  surroundings.  The  flower  garden  may  be  composed 
of  a  few  little  plants  growing  by  the  cottage  door,  a 
single  bed  in  the  lawn  in  front  of  the  house,  a  part  of  the 
vegetable  garden  set  aside  for  flowers,  or  a  large  and 
pretentious  space  occupied  by  many  of  the  pet  flowers 
of  the  family,  and  from  which  an  abundance  of  blos- 
soms may  .be  gathered  to  decorate  the  dining-table  or 
the  various  rooms  of  the  house  when  desired,  or  for  sale 

(Fig-  32). 

As  with  most  of  the  farm  and  garden  crops,  much  of 
the  success  in  flower  growing  depends  upon  the  nature 
and  richness  of  the  soil.  The  land  should  be  well  under- 
drained  if  wet,  and  be  made  rich  by  working  in  fine 
stable  manure,  leaf  mould  or  other  organic  matter.  If 
the  flower  garden  or  beds  are  under  large  trees,  much 
difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  preventing  their  roots 
from  taking  up  all  the  moisture  and  plant  food  we  may 
apply.  This  can  only  be  prevented  by  cutting  off  every 
year  or  two,  with  a  sharp  spade,  the  fine  fibrous  roots 
that  work  up  into  the  beds,  and  replacing  the  soil  thus 
taken  with  rich  loam  and  manure.  In  this  way  we  may 
hope  to  have  a  good  show  of  annual  plants  or  Dutch 
bulbs  even  under  the  dense  shade  of  the  elm,  the  most 
avaricious  feeder  of  all  our  ornamental  trees. 

Wild  Flowers  Upon  The  Lawn. 

While  in  the  country  we  find  almost  everywhere  an 
abundance  of  wild  flowers,  many  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  these  are  seldom  seen,  though  they  may  be  success- 
fully transplanted  to  our  grounds  and  gardens. 

Thus  in  a  rocky,  shaded  place  in  a  rather  moist  soil, 
or  under  the  shade  of  trees,  we  may  grow  the  blood-root 
(Sanguinaria) ,  the  wake-robins  (Trillum),  hooded  vio- 
lets, ferns,  etc.  Upon  rocks  in  springy  soil  we  will  be 


lo6  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

able  to  grow  columbines  (aquilegia),  saxifrage,  snow-on- 
the-mountain,  etc. 

Native  asters  (A.  cordefolium,  A.  undulatus),  golden- 
rods,  etc.,  will  grow  under  avenues  of  trees,  and  plants 
of  these  and  many  other  species  may  be  established  by 
transplanting  clumps  or  by  sowing  the  seeds  just  before 
the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall.  Other  species  of  asters 
and  golden-rods  may  be  grown  in  more  full  exposure. 

Native  Ferns. — There  are  few  plants  that  are  more 
satisfactory  than  many  of  our  native  ferns  where  we 
have  suitable  conditions  for  their  growth  and  where 
they  can  be  protected  from  injury  by  dogs,  cats,  and 
poultry.  They  succeed  on  a  northern  exposure  and  in 
a  moist  soil.  If  the  soil  is  not  right  it  may  be  easily 
made  so  by  removing  unfavorable  soil  and  adding 
peaty  or  turfy  soil  from  swamps  or  meadows  and  tamp- 
ing it  firmly  in  place.  Clumps  of  ferns  may  be  dug  in 
the  fall  before  the  ground  freezes  and  planted,  or  they 
may  be  set  just  as  they  are  beginning  growth  in  the 
spring.  About  the  only  requirements  of  these  plants 
during  the  summer  are  an  abundance  of  water  and  not 
too  full  exposure  to  the  sun.  Fig.  33  shows  a  group  of 
ferns  and  native  shrubs  massed  with  the  house  for  a 
background. 

Lawn  Perennials. 

There  are  many  beautiful  hardy  herbaceous  peren- 
nials especially  adapted  to  growth  upon  the  lawn, 
among  which  are,  peonias,  phloxes,  day  lilies,  golden 
glow,  iris,  lily-of-the-valley,  hollyhocks,  larkspur,  yucca, 
etc.  These  may  be  arranged  in  groups  all  of  one  kind, 
or  in  mixed  groups,  at  various  places  about  the  lawn; 
in  a  line  along  the  boundary  or  the  sides  of  the  walks; 
in  masses  by  the  sides  of  the  steps, 'in  a  mass  to  cover 
the  foundation  of  the  house,  etc.  When  the  space  to  be 


LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN  109 

planted  is  small  single  specimens  here  and  there  about 
the  lawn  would  be  sufficient,  and  when  well  established 
would  grow  a  long  time  and  often  spread  to  very  large 
masses.  When  the  space  is  larger,  collections  of  the 
popular  perennials  will  give  much  pleasure. 

Thus  a  large  collection  of  choice  varieties  of  peonies, 
phloxes,  iris,  etc.,  would  be  attractive  and  might  become 
a  source  of  some  profit.  In  arranging  shrubs  and  all 
kinds  of  plants  upon  the  lawn  it  is  most  satisfactory  to 
have  them  around  the  outsides,  leaving  as  broad  an  ex- 
panse of  lawn  as  possible.  The  lawn  and  the  groups  can 
in  this  way  be  more  easily  cared  for.  The  border  of  the 
beds  and  spaces  about  each  individual  tree,  shrub  or 
plant  should  be  cut  true  and  smooth  so  that  the  lawn- 
mower  may  cut  close  up  and  the  edges  need  no  trim- 
ming with  the  grass  hook  or  edge  shears. 

Borders  along  the  boundary  line  may  be  often  planted 
with  good  effect  of  mixed  perennials,  the  taller  ones  like 
the  golden  glow,  hollyhock,  larkspur,  etc.,  being  planted 
in  the  rear  and  others  grading  down  to  the  lowest  in 
front. 

Lawn  Annuals  or  Bedding  Plants. 

Many  annuals  or  tender  bedding  plants  are  grown  in 
beds  upon  the  lawn  with  good  effect.  For  these  the 
soil  must  be  prepared  as  for  perennials  or  shrubs.  If 
very  dry  and  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  such  plants  as 
coleus,  portulaca,  sedums,  calendula,  cercopsis,  lantana, 
nasturtium,  petunia,  oxalis,  zinnias,  French  marigold, 
gourds,  castor  beans,  etc.,  will  generally  succeed.  When 
there  is  more  moisture  and  a  deep  rich  soil  a  greater 
variety  may  be  grown.  Such  plants  as  geraniums, 
cannas,  dahlias,  gladiolus,  sweet  peas,  morning-glories, 
pansies,  forget-me-nots,  etc.,  are  especially  available. 

In  a  very  deep  moist  soil  many  kinds  of  lilies  will  sue- 


110 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


ceed,  though  perhaps  they  will  do  better  in  the  flower 
garden,  where  the  whole  space  is  given  up  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  flowers.  In 
growing  shrubs  or 
plants  upon  the  lawn 
it  must  be  kept  in 
mind  that  we  are 

\\  U*fii    Mm-  /  trying  to  grow  flow- 

FjL^^;  ers,  grass,  and  per- 

haps shrubs  and 
trees,  and  a  very 
large  amount  of 
plant  food  must  be 
applied  to  keep  up 
the  soil  fertility  to 
a  point  where  all 
will  have  an  ade- 
quate supply. 


FIG.  34 — How  Peony  and  other  Herbaceous 
Perennial  Roots  are  Divided  for  Trans- 
planting. 


THE  FLOWER  GARDEN. 

The  flower  garden  proper  is  a  space  set  aside  entirely 
for  the  growth  of  flowering  plants.  In  many  places  it  in- 
cludes shrubs,  but  as  the  latter  are  gross  feeders  it  will 
be  found  that  herbaceous  plants  will  succeed  better  by 
themselves.  The  flower  garden  may  be  set  off  from  one 
side  of  the  vegetable  garden,  where  some  parts  may  be 
cultivated  by  the  horse  (Fig.  37). 

For  the  best  results  the  soil  should  be  first  made  fine 
and  mellow.  The  space  should  be  laid  out  to  a  definite 
plan,  with  sufficient  walks  to  get  about  among  the 
plants,  and  yet  the  fewer  walks  we  have  the  more  space 
there  will  be  for  plants.  Walks,  too,  being  compacted 
and  exposed  to  the  sun  will  carry  off  the  moisture  faster 
than  if  it  were  all  a  cultivated  surface.  There  is,  how- 
ever, some  advantage  in  having  the  garden  planned 


FIQ.  35 — THE  FLOWER  GARDEN;   BULBS  IN  BLOOM  IN  THE  SPRING. 


LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN  113 

with  geometrical  beds  of  various  sizes,  so  that  plants  of 
different  kinds  may  be  put  into  beds  of  a  size  suitable 
for  their  growth. 

If,  however,  we  attempt  to  arrange  our  plants  ac- 
cording to  size  only,  we  may  mix  annuals  and  peren- 
nials in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  much  confusion,  and 
often  a  great  irregularity  in  the  appearance  of  the  beds. 
A  plan  for  a  flower  garden  requires  a  great  deal  of  care- 
ful study. 

Perennials. 

If  we  arrange  all  of  the  perennials  in  a  central  border 
or  long  bed  we  may  place  the  tall  ones  like  hollyhocks, 
larkspur,  golden  glow,  boceonia,  boltonia,  helianthus, 
etc.,  in  a  line  in  the  middle.  If  the  border  is  along  the 
boundary,  the  tall  ones  should  be  placed  next  the  bound- 
ary line,  with  those  next  in  height  in  front  and  the  smaller 
kinds  next  the  walk,  so  that  the  tops  of  all  may  be  in 
full  view.  The  special  treatment  required  by  peren- 
nials, in  brief,  is  to  give  each  kind  an  abundance  of  room 
at  planting  and  to  divide  frequently  the  roots  of  those 
that  tend  to  spread  beyond  their  allotted  space.  Thus 
peonies,  iris,  golden  glow,  phloxes,  etc.,  spread  so  rap- 
idly that  the  soil  about  them  is  soon  exhausted,  and 
the  plants  and  flowers  make  a  small  growth,  when  the 
clump  must  be  dug  up  and  a  small  portion  of  it  re- 
planted in  its  place  in  soil  made  rich  by  adding  stable 
manure  or  by  new  soil  carted  in.  Fig.  34  shows  the 
method  of  dividing  perennial  roots  like  the  peony,  etc. 
The  best  time  for  replanting  hardy  herbaceous  peren- 
nials is  in  the  early  fall,  but  many  of  them  will  succeed 
if  replanted  in  the  early  spring.  Lilies  require  an 
especially  rich,  deep,  yet  well  drained  soil.  In  a  wet 
soil  the  bulbs  grow  small  and  near  the  surface,  and  in  a 


114  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

few  years  run  out.  These  bulbs  need  frequent  trans- 
planting, which  should  be  done  soon  after  the  flower 
stalk  turns  yellow. 

Biennial  Plants. 

Many  biennial  plants  like  hollyhocks,  foxgloves,  etc., 
are  especially  desirable  for  the  home  flower  garden,  and 
like  many  of  the  perennials  may  be  easily  grown  from 
seeds. 

Growing  Seedlings. — The  seed-bed  for  all  hardy  her- 
baceous plants  should  be  in  a  somewhat  shaded  place, 
but  not  entirely  shut  off  from  the  sun.  The  soil  should 
be  firm  and  mellow,  with  a  good  supply  of  organic  mat- 
ter in  it  from  either  well  decomposed  manure,  leaf 
mould  from  the  woods,  or  composted  turf.  The  seeds 
should  be  carefully  sown  in  rows  and  covered  with  fine 
soil  two  or  three  times  the  thickness  of  the  seeds.  Until 
the  seeds  burst  through  the  soil  the  principal  care  will 
be  to  see  that  the  surface  of  the  soil  does  not  get  dry  or 
that  it  is  not  so  wet  that  the  seeds  will  decay.  In  case 
of  hot,  dry  weather,  a  shade  of  burlap  stretched  on  a 
frame,  lath  or  brush  will  prevent  too  much  drying,  and 
if  heavy  rains  occur  raised  shutters  should  be  placed 
over  the  bed.  A  light  covering  of  sifted  sphagnum  moss 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil  will  hold  the  moisture  on  the 
surface  with  no  other  shade  or  covering.  After  the 
seedlings  are  up  much  the  same  kind  of  care  is  needed. 
If  too  wet,  they  will  "damp  off"  (decay);  and  if  too 
dry,  they  will  wilt  down  and  grow  slowly,  or  perhaps 
die.  If  the  seeds  come  up  thickly  they  should  be  thinned 
out,  so  that  each  one  left  may  have  space  enough  for 
full  development.  With  many  kinds  of  plants  the  little 
seedlings  may  be  transplanted  to  other  similar  beds 
until  they  reach  the  desired  size  for  transplanting  to 
permanent  beds.  In  transplanting  in  dry  weather  it  is 


LAWN  AND  FLOWER  GARDEN  1 1 5 

best  to  water  the  ground  thoroughly  quite  a  little  time 
before  transplanting  and  then  shade  with  boards,  lat- 
tice or  any  similar  covering  for  a  few  days  after.  If  only 
small  numbers  of  seedlings  are  to  be  transplanted  it 
may  be  done  late  in  the  afternoon,  when  they  will  have 
a  night  in  which  to  recover  from  the  moving. 

WINTER  PROTECTION  FOR  HARDY  PLANTS. 

In  northern  sections,  where  there  is  severe  freezing 
more  or  less  alternating  with  thawing  weather,  some 
precautions  are  needed  to  protect  the  plants  from 
severe  injury  or  even  destruction.  If  this  covering  is 
put  on  too  thick,  it  will  cause  heating  or  fermentation 
and  the  plants  are  killed.  Coarse  hay,  straw,  pine 
needles,  all  make  good  protection.  Coarse  strawy  ma- 
nure, if  the  garden  is  not  in  too  conspicuous  a  place 
may  be  used,  and  will  afford  protection  and  supply 
plant-food  the  following  season.  All  coverings  should  be 
removed  before  growth  begins  in  the  spring  and  before 
extremely  warm  weather,  as  any  green  foliage  under 
it  will  be  blanched  and  rendered  weak. 

Dutch  Bulbs. 

No  class  of  plants  gives  so  much  of  beauty  for  the 
time  and  expense  incurred  as  the  hyacinth,  tulip,  crocus, 
and  other  so-called  Dutch  bulbs  (Fig.  35).  Most  of  the 
bulbs  used  are  imported  from  Holland,  whence  the  name 
"  Dutch  bulb, "  and  grow  but  one  year,  though  many  of 
them  will  continue  under  favorable  conditions  for  a  great 
many  years  from  one  planting.  Thus  the  tulip,  and  the 
daffodil  in  a  rich  garden,  will  continue  for  a  decade,  or 
even  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  produce  many  good 
flowers.  The  hyacinth  and  crocus  are  not  as  lasting, 
but  will  continue  to  bloom  freely  for  two  or  three  years 
and  sometimes  longer.  They  may  be  planted  in  the 


ii6  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

flower  garden,  but  are  much  more  beautiful  in  beds 
upon  the  lawn  with  a  background  of  green.  The  soil 
should  be  made  rich,  deep  and  mellow,  and  the  bulbs 
planted  as  early  in  the  fall  as  they  can  be  obtained. 
If  the  bulbs  are  to  be  transplanted  from  one's  own  gar- 
den they  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  the  leaves  have  turned 
yellow  and  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place  until  September 
or  October,  when  they  should  be  set  from  four  to  six 
inches  deep.  For  the  best  effect  hyacinths  should  be 
planted  from  eight  to  ten  inches  apart,  tulips  and  nar- 
cissus six  to  eight  inches,  and  crocuses  four  to  six 
inches,  but  may  be  planted  further  apart  with  good  re- 
sults. At  the  North,  where  the  ground  freezes  deeply, 
the  beds  should  be  covered  with  from  six  to  ten  inches 
of  coarse  stable  manure  before  freezing  weather  sets  in, 
thus  furnishing  protection  to  the  bulbs  and  enrichment 
of  the  soil.  Before  growth  begins  in  the  spring,  the 
coarse  part  of  this  covering  must  be  removed,  or  the 
flowers  may  not  be  able  to  force  their,  way  through, 
while  the  finer  portion  is  left  on  the  surface  to  decay. 

Window  and  Veranda  Boxes. 

While  window  boxes  are  more  especially  adapted  to 
city  and  village  homes,  yet  as  a  portion  of  the  family 
even  in  the  country  spends  a  large  part  of  the  time  in- 
doors, these  boxes  will  be  enjoyed  by  them,  especially 
when  the  family  gather  upon  the  veranda  in  the  even- 
ing. The  box  should  be  made  of  good  size,  with  holes 
in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and  filled  first  with  a  layer 
of  small  stones,  in  broken  pots,  and  then  with  rich  soil 
made  of  about  one-third  decayed  turf,  one-third  well 
rotted  stable  manure,  and  one-third  sand.  If  in  a  very 
dry  place  a  portion  of  the  sand  may  be  left  out.  Vines 
to  run  upward  or  droop  over  the  box  and  blooming  or 
foliage  plants  in  the  middle  will  produce  beautiful  results. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN 


THE  principal  aim  of  this  volume  is  to  encourage 
living  in   the   country,  and  we  hope  to  show 
that    with    only    a    small    garden    a    meagre 
income    may    be    materially    increased,    and    by    hard 
work,  promptness,  and  energy,  may  even  be  so  increased 
as  to  furnish  a  good  support  for  the  family. 

The  various  lines  of  gardening  and  farming  afford 
work  for  all  members  of  the  family;  each  one,  large 
and  small,  may  do  something  for4ia^*£  own  support,  and 
thus  taking  responsibilities  early  in  life  learn  habits  of 
industry  and  thrift  that  tfcy  would  probably  not  ac- 
quire in  any  other  way.  Each  member  qf  the  family, 
especially  the  children,  should  have  tketr  plot  where 


may  plant  t  what  te'y  chooser  and  learn  that  results 
depend  upon  their  personal  efforts.  The  family  garden 
especially  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  children  to 
assist  in  picking  the  fruit,  gathering  vegetables,  pulling 
weeds,  and  assisting  in  many  other  ways. 

The  family  garden  proper,  however,  may  be  consid- 
ered as  an  additional  source  of  income  and  comfort  of 
living  in  the  country,  and  not  of  a  large  income  in  cash, 
though  a  small  area  well  cared  for  will  often  yield  a 
considerable  income  from  surplus  not  needed  for  family 
use.  In  succeeding  chapters  the  details  of  the  work  of 
caring  for  fruits  and  vegetables  are  given  in  full,  with 
the  tools  needed  and  how  to  protect  the  crops  from 
insects  and  fungous  pests. 

117 


n8  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

The  family  garden  may  consist  of  a  very  small  area, 
only  a  bed  of  strawberries,  a  few  currant  bushes,  rasp- 
berries, blackberries,  two  or  three  grapevines,  an  apple 
tree  or  two,  a  few  radishes,  lettuce,  or  other  vegetable 
plants,  or  it  may  extend  to  a  much  larger  area. 

Soil  and  Exposure. 

In  but  few  cases  can  we  expect  the  soil  and  exposure 
to  be  the  best  for  a  large  variety  of  garden  crops,  though 
fair  success  may  be  expected  in  any  ordinarily  good  soil 
if  it  is  made  rich  with  stable  manure  or  fertilizer.  On 
the  north  side  of  buildings  where  the  sun  strikes  only  in 
the  morning  and  afternoon  very  few  crops  will  grow. 
We  may  grow  radishes,  lettuce,  cabbage,  cauliflowers, 
dandelions,  raspberries  and  blackberries,  and  possibly 
apples,  but  the  vegetables  and  fruits  that  require  more 
heat,  like  the  cucumber,  melon,  corn,  pepper,  toma- 
toes, peaches,  grapes,  etc.,  must  be  planted  in  warm, 
sheltered  places.  In  open,  full  exposure  to  sunlight  and 
air,  a  greater  variety  of  fruits  or  vegetables  may  be 
grown  than  if  sheltered,  though  the  degree  of  success 
with  different  crops  will  depend  more  or  less  upon 
whether  this  exposure  is  northerly  or  southerly. 

Mixed  Plantings. 

Large  and  small  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  grown 
readily  on  the  same  ground.  The  large  tree  fruits  may 
be  set  wide  apart,  with  the  smaller  ones  in  between,  the 
bush  fruits  in  between  these  in  rows,  and  the  vegetables 
in  rows  between  the  latter.  If  land  is  abundant  and  the 
different  kinds  of  crops  can  be  grown  near,  so  as  to  be 
under  the  eye  at  all  times,  these  three  groups  will  do 
better  if  planted  by  themselves,  that  special  treatment  of 
fertilizers,  cultivation,  and  spraying  may  be  given  to  one 
without  applying  to  all. 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN 


119 


In  gardens  of  small  size,  however,  this  cannot  well  be 
done.  Frequently  the  family  garden  is  a  continuation 
of  the  lawn  or  runs  up  close  to  the  buildings  so  that 
such  a  division  would  be  impossible.  Fig.  36  shows  a 
home  lot  of  one  acre,  where  only  about  one-third  of  an 
acre  is  available  for  the  family  garden.  In  this  plan, 
the  west  boundary  is 
utilized  for  growing 
peach  trees  and  currant 
bushes,  and  the  south 
line  for  cherry  trees. 
The  north  end  of  nearly 
one  -  third  of  an  acre 
is  devoted  to  apples, 
pears,  plums,  raspber- 
ries, blackberries,  and 
strawberries  and  vege- 
tables. As  a  partial 
screen  of  the  garden 
from  the  house  a  line 
of  grapevines  is  planted 
south  of  the  garden  to  be  trained  to  a  high  wire  trellis. 
Grapevines,  too,  may  be  trained  to  the  south  side  of  the 
house  and  stable. 

In  the  plan  of  the  combined  garden  (Fig.  37)  of  one 
acre — 218  x  200  feet — the  apple  trees  are  set  fifty  feet 
apart  in  four  rows,  with  a  row  of  pear  trees  twenty-five 
feet  apart  between  the  first  and  second  rows,  and 
peaches,  plums,  or  cherries  between  the  third  and  fourth 
rows.  Raspberries,  blackberries  and  strawberries  are  to 
be  set  in  rows  between  the  second  and  third  rows,  or 
between  pears  and  apples,  leaving  the  other  spaces  for 
vegetables.  Currant  and  gooseberry  bushes  may  be  set 
in  the  line  of  the  apple  or  other  large  trees,  as  they  are 
the  least  injured  by  shade.  The  first  row  of  apple  trees 


200  Ft. 
FIG.  36 — Plan  of  Garden  and  Grounds. 


120 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


may  be  set  nearer  the  north  and  east  lines,  thus  making 
a  clear  space  on  the  west  of  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  feet, 
and  on  the  south  of  from  forty  to  sixty  feet,  for  small 
fruits  or  vegetables.  The  latter  also  can  be  grown  be- 
tween all  of  the  trees  for  at  least  ten  to  fifteen  years,  or 
until  the  trees  begin  to  shade  the  whole  ground.  Along 
the  north  end  may  be  planted  grapevines,  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  etc.,  or  the  rows  of  vegetables  or  small  fruit 
crops  may  be  extended  down  to  the  line,  leaving  only 

N          SOOFt. 


&     o.    ©            @ 

vx          •*** 

X      VjJ 

Apples 

o 

<4 

y. 

Peaches  and 

<3 

Plums 

•©     o'    Q>          @ 

X    '@ 

'r  o              2  "P"                v 

Pears 

£             C°            *  C               X 

8 

S           i  °            fc  £ 
£     0  5  0     d&  *  ?     G&      X     $9) 

1           S°             II 
U              o                             x 

E 
-  Currants 

W 

o 

@     °     @            @J     X     (g» 

Flower  Garden 

Hot  Beds 

Tool 

Shed 

FIG.  37 — Plan  of  a  Garden  of  Fruit,  Flowers  and  Vegetables. 

space  enough  to  turn  the  horse  in  cultivating.  At  the 
south  end  the  wide  space  may  be  devoted  to  flowers,  a 
few  hot-beds  may  be  located,  and  in  one  corner  a  small 
tool  house,  in  which  to  keep  the  tools  where  they  can 
be  easily  gotten  at  when  wanted,  would  be  convenient. 
Fig.  38  represents  the  same  area,  as  Fig.  39,  one  acre — 
435  x  I0°  feet  — w^^  trees  and  vegetables  on  the  east 
side,  the  small  fruits  in  a  group  in  the  middle  and  veg- 
etables again  on  the  west  side.  Other  plans  might  be 
made  giving  more  space  to  trees  or  vegetables  or  small 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN 


121 


100  Ft. 


fruits  as  may  be  desired,  but  about  the  following  dis- 
tances should  be  observed  in  planting.  Fig.  39  illus- 
trates a  larger  mixed  garden  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 
On  the  left  is  a  large  asparagus  patch,  and  on  the 
right,  plum  trees  and  currant  bushes,  while  in  the 
middle  are  turnips,  beets,  and  carrots,  all  in  long  rows 
so  that  the  work  of  cultivating  can  be  done  largely  by 
the  horse. 

Many  experience  difficulty  in 
growing  vegetables  among  trees, 
but  planted  at  the  distance 
given  on  the  above  plan  it  will 
be  many  years  before  the  trees 
will  give  shade  enough  to  injure 
these  crops,  and  by  the  rotation 
of  crops  or  change  of  fertilizer 
crops  should  succeed  and  trees 
be  kept  in  good  condition.  The 
continued  use  of  large  quanti- 
ties of  stable  manure  alone  often 
results  in  a  sour  and  unhealthful 
condition  of  the  '  soil  that  must 
be  remedied  by  the  use  of  lime 
(air  slacked) ,  hard  wood  ashes, 
or  slag  phosphate,  once  in  three  to  five  years. 

To  supplement  and  make  stable  manure  a  complete 
fertilizer,  sulphate  of  potash  and  slag  phosphate — twenty- 
five  to  thirty-five  pounds  of  the  former  to  fifty  to  seventy 
pounds  of  the  latter — may  be  added  to  each  cord  of 
manure.  This  may  be  mixed  with  the  manure  before 
spreading  or  be  sown  upon  the  land  before  the  manure  is 
worked  in.  Land  among  fruit  trees  should  not  be  heav- 
ily manured  unless  the  trees  are  bearing  a  heavy  crop  of 
fruit  or  the  ground  under  them  is  closely  occupied  with 
other  crops.  One  of  the  most  common  causes  of  failure 


1 

o    0 
X      X- 

rf- 

x—x- 

"  Apple 
-Peach 
-  Pear 
-  Plum 

ft, 

1    * 

tl 

o     0 

1       X      * 

!  0.4L 

-  Currants 

cc        "< 

1  °l'@ 

jj 

1  \ 

1  x-l 

§ 

& 

X       f 

0      § 

JE: 

x     x 

0  ® 

\   '/uo( 

|     .s'W 

FIG.  38— Plan  of  a  Garden  of 
Fruit  and  Vegetables. 


122  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

of  fruit  trees  grown  with  garden  crops  is  that  the  trees 
are  abnormally  forced  and  the  soil  is  quickly  exhausted 
by  both  crops,  and  for  a  time  they  are  starved  or  the 
moisture  is  all  taken  out  of  the  land  by  the  two  crops. 
If  crops  are  grown  under  trees,  the  soil  should  be  culti- 
vated frequently  to  let  in  sunlight  and  air  and  thus  keep 
in  the  moisture. 

All  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  grown  in  the 
family  garden,  while  in  the  commercial  garden — market 


FIG.  39 — Mixed  Garden  and  Farm  Crops. 

garden — only  a  few  kinds  are  grown  and  but  a  few  va- 
rieties of  each  kind  that  are  in  demand  in  the  markets 
where  they  are  to  be  sold.  We  often  get  much  pleasure 
from  testing  new  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  new  varie- 
ties of  old  ones,  as  they  come  out,  but  in  nine  cases  in 
ten  the  new  ones  will  be  of  less  value  than  the  old  stand- 
ards. The  work  of  testing  new  varieties  we  should  leave 
to  the  experiment  stations,  which  are  well  equipped  for 
the  work. 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN  123 

Fruit  Trees  in  Turf. 

The  small  fruits  and  vegetables  must  be  cultivated, 
but  many  of  the  fruit  trees  may  be  in  turf.  Thus  along 
the  boundary  lines,  or  next  the  street,  cherry  trees  will 
grow  to  perfection  if  a  little  fertilizing  material  is  put 
about  them  each  year.  The  apple,  pear  and  peach  trees 
may  be  made  to  grow  in  any  soil  that  will  produce  a  good 
turf.  Under  this  condition  at  planting  a  large  hole  must 
be  dug  and  the  tree  carefully  planted,  with  fine  mellow 
soil  packed  firmly  about  the  roots.  A  space  about  each 
tree  from  four  to  six  feet  in  diameter  should  be  spaded 
up  and  kept  fine  and  mellow  during  the  summer,  or  the 
same  end  may  be  obtained — i.e.,  retaining  the  moisture 
in  the  soil — by  a  mulch  of  coarse  strawy  manure,  old 
hay,  straw,  or  other  organic  matter,  spread  from  three 
to  six  inches  deep  over  the  space  as  far  as  the  branches 
spread.  No  crops  of  grass  should  be  allowed  to  mature 
on  land -occupied  by  the  trees,  but  be  cut  two  or  three 
times  each  season  and  allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground 
under  the  trees.  If  this  is  too  conspicuous  it  may  be 
raked  up  and  fine,  well  rotted  manure  be  raked  in  under 
the  trees  two  or  three  times  each  summer.  In  growing 
fruit  trees  of  any  kind  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  un- 
less they  are  liberally  fed,  the  large  amount  of  growth 
of  root,  stem,  leaf  and  fruit  will  soon  exhaust  the  soil  of 
most  of  its  plant  food.  If  the  end  shoots  of  apple,  pear, 
cherry  and  plum  trees  do  not  make  a  growth  of  from  six 
inches  to  two  feet  the  trees  are  not  in  condition  to  pro- 
duce large  crops  of  choice  fruits.  One  needs  to  give  fruit 
trees  on  the  lawn  more  care  as  to  beauty  of  form  than 
if  they  were  in  an  orchard,  and  while  the  trees  are 
young  they  should  be  put  into  perfect  shape  by  pinch- 
ing the  ends  of  all  shoots  that  are  growing  outside  the 
outline  prescribed  and  cutting  out  any  branches  that  are 


124 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


crowding  or  resting  upon  others.  For  the  general  care 
of  fruit  trees,  small  fruits,  and  vegetables,  see  Chap. 
VII,  on  commercial  fruit  and  vegetable  growing. 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FAMILY  GARDEN. 

In  the  accompanying  plans  all  crops  are  arranged  in 
rows,  so  that  cultivation  may  be  done  by  the  horse. 
Even  if  one  has  no  family  horse  the  hire  of  one  for  a  few 


FIG.  40— The  Author's  "  Weed-Killer."    Note  the  Wheel  Hoe, 
Triangular  Hoe,  Rakes  of  Two  Widths. 

hours  when  needed  will  be  found  profitable  and  will 
save  much  time  and  hard  hand  work.  In  the  very  small 
garden  (Fig.  36),  when  the  rows  are  short,  the  hand 
wheel-cultivator  (Fig.  40) ,  will  be  found  of  great  assist- 
ance. There  are  many  kinds  of  these  tools,  most  of  them 
combined  with  the  seed  drill,  all  of  which  will  do  more 
or  less  good  work.  The  one  shown  in  the  above  picture 
of  the  author's  "  weed- killer  "  (Fig.  40)  has  the  advantage 
that  the  high  wheel  and  long  handles  enable  the  operator 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN  125 

to  stand  erect  and  force  the  tool  along  by  simply  leaning 
the  body  forward,  and  it  runs  more  easily  than  those 
with  small  wheels.  With  one  of  these  tools  one  can  do 
almost  as  good  and  as  much  work  as  the  horse,  and  it 
would  be  much  more  quickly  and  better  done  than  by 
hand.  Many  kinds  of  tools  and  attachments  come  with 
each  cultivator— fine  teeth,  thin  blades  for  shaving  off 
the  weeds,  plow  blades  for  hilling,  etc.,  which  are 
interchangeable  and  may  be  quickly  changed. 

The  triangular  hoe  shown  in  the  picture  (Fig.  41)  is 
unlike  the  common  or  "  sunny  side  "  hoe  in  the  market,  in 
that  it  is  made  from  the  common  thin-bladed  corn  hoe 
with  a  nine  or 
ten  inch  blade 
about  three 
inches  wide, the 

back  or  Curved  FIG.  41— The  Triangular  Hoe  ;  How  Made. 

part  being  cut  off  as  shown  in  the  cut,  with  a  sharp 
file  or  cold  chisel.  This  makes  a  long  cutting  edge 
for  shaving  of  the  little  weeds  on  the  surface,  with 
long,  slender  points  that  work  in  among  closely  planted 
crops,  and  stirs  the  soil  more  easily  and  deeply  than  the 
common  square  hoe  generally  used.  The  best  time  for 
killing  weeds  is  just  as  they  are  breaking  through  the 
ground,  and  in  a  light  soil  this  may  be  done  quickly  with 
the  common  garden  rake  between  the  rows  and  a  small 
one  with  four  or  six  teeth  to  work  in  and  among  the  hills. 
With  the  wheel  hand-cultivator,  the  "weed- killer"  hoe, 
and  rakes  of  two  sizes,  a  large  area  of  garden  surface  may 
be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  the  soil  light  and  mellow. 

Summer  Fertilization. 

It  is  said  that  the  Japanese  are  the  most  skilful  people 
in  the  world  in  the  use  of  fertilizer.  They  utilize  all  pos- 
sible fertilizing  materials  and  apply  frequently,  working 


i  26  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

it  into  the  surface  close  to  the  roots,  and  in  our  garden 
work  we  may  gain  much  by  following  their  methods.  If 
during  any  part  of  the  season  our  crops  are  not  growing 
as  we  would  have  them,  a  little  nitrate  of  soda,  poultry 
dropping,  or  other  quickly  soluble  fertilizer,  scattered 
close  up  to  the  rows  and  worked  in  with  the  rake  or 
hand-cultivator,  will  cause  a  great  improvement.  These 
fertilizers,  however,  should  not  be  applied  late  in  the 
season,  as  they  might  cause  late  and  immature  growth, 
like  unripe  onions,  coarse  squashes,  etc. 

Cold  Frames  and  Hot- Beds. 

While  these  structures  are  more  or  less  used  in  all 
kinds  of  garden  work,  they  are  especially  useful  in  the 
family  garden.  When  properly  made  and  skilfully 
managed  a  very  small  area  covered  with  glass  may  be 
made  to  produce  a  large  amount  of  garden  produce 
out  of  season  and  extend  the  season  of  supply  at  both 
ends  (Fig.  77). 

For  the  best  results  preparation  should  be  made  in 
the  fall  by  excavating  a  space  from  one  to  two  feet  deep, 
six  feet  wide,  and  the  length  of  the  number  of  sash  to  be 
used,  especially  at  the  North,  where  the  ground  freezes 
deeply.  This  space  is  filled  with  leaves,  and  when  it  is 
desired  to  start  the  beds  in  the  spring  the  frames  are 
adjusted  and  the  sash,  mats  and  shutters  put  on.  After 
the  bed  is  well  warmed  up  by  the  sun's  heat,  the  leaves 
are  thrown  out  and  heating  manure  put  in  their  place. 
The  manure  for  heating  should  be  fresh  and  unfer- 
mented  and  be  thrown  into  a  large  rounded  pile  in  a 
cellar  or  shed,  where  it  freezes  very  little  or  not  at  all. 
When  well  warmed  up,  and  steaming  vigorously,  the 
pile  is  thrown  over  and  thoroughly  mixed  and  left  to 
heat  again.  When  this  gets  decidedly  hot  it  is  put  into 
the  hot-bed  from  six  inches  to  two  feet  deep,  according 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN  127 

to  the  season  and  the  crops  to  be  grown.  In  the  middle 
of  winter  the  full  two  feet  will  be  needed,  while  in  April 
only  a  little  will  suffice.  On  top  of  this  manure, 
which  must  "be  trodden  firmly,  from  four  to  six  inches  of 
fine  rich  soil  should  be  placed  to  within  ten  inches  to 
one  foot  of  the  glass.  A  thermometer  should  be  placed 
in  the  heating  material  and  when  it  has  reached  about 
100°  and  receded  to  80°  or  90°,  seeds  of  tomatoes,  pep- 
pers, egg-plants,  cucumbers,  corn,  etc.,  may  be  sown, 
and 'when  it  is  down  to  70°  or  80°,  seeds  of  radishes,  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  beets,  onions,  etc. 

Hot-beds  are  used  for  forcing  lettuce,  radishes,  etc., 
and  starting  plants  of  cabbage,  lettuce,  cauliflower, 
beets,  tomatoes,  and  onions,  to  be  transplanted  into  the 
open  ground.  Many  other  plants  besides  those  men- 
tioned above  may  be  forced  in  the  hot-beds,  such  as 
peas,  beets,  onions,  beans,  cucumbers,  etc.,  but  the 
yield  is  so  small  and  the  time  required  for  their  ma- 
turity so  great  that  there  would  be  no  profit — only  an 
expensive  luxury — in  trying  to  compete  with  truck- 
growers  at  the  South,  who  with  modern  methods  of 
transportation  can  put  a  fairly  good  product  into  our 
markets  at  a  very  low  price. 

For  the  cold  frame  no  excavation  is  needed,  only  the 
leaves  or  other  covering  put  on  in  the  fall  to  keep  the 
ground  from  freezing  so  that  the  space  may  be  quickly 
warmed  up  when  desired.  No  bottom  heat  is  used;  all 
the  heat  is  secured  from  the  sun  and  is  held  in  the  beds 
by  glass,  mats  and  shutters. 

Much  skill  must  be  exercised  in  running  these  frames. 
The  sash  should  not  be  opened  in  the  morning  until  the 
sun  is  well  up,  and  should  be  closed  before  they  cool  off 
too  much  in  the  afternoon.  Mats  and  shutters  must  be 
used  to  cover  the  frames  at  night  and  in  very  cold 
weather,  Thermometers  should  be  kept  in  each  frame 


128  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

and  frequently  examined.  For  radishes,  lettuce,  celery, 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  beets,  onions,  etc.,  a  day  tempera- 
ture of  50°  to  60°,  and  at  night  40°  to  50°,  will  give  the 
best  results.  For  corn,  cucumbers,  peppers,  tomatoes, 
etc.,  the  temperature  should  be  50°  to  60°  at  night  and 
60°  to  70°  during  the  day. 

Starting  Seeds. 

In  the  hot-bed  and  cold  frame  the  conditions  for  suc- 
cessful germination  may  be  more  certainly  controlled 
than  out  of  doors,  as  we  can  prevent  drying  out  of  the 
surface  or  too  much  moisture,  either  of  which  will  gen- 
erally destroy  seeds  just  beginning  to  germinate.  We 
can  also  control  the  temperature.  In  the  cold  frame  we 
generally  cover  the  seeds  more  thinly  than  in  the  open 
air,  by  sifting  over  them  a  little  soil  two  or  three  times 
the  thickness  of  the  seed.  If  the  soil  is  rather  moist, 
simply  press  the  soil  over  the  seed  with  the  hand  or 
with  a  block,  but  if  it  is  decidedly  dry,  the  soil  may  be 
settled  by  sprinkling  with  water.  The  critical  time  with 
seeds  is  just  as  they  are  breaking  through  the  ground. 
If  too  dry  at  this  time  the  seedlings  will  wilt,  or  if  too 
wet,  they  will  decay  (damp  off).  For  the  further 
discussion  of  this  subject  see  Chap.  XI,  on  market 
gardening. 

Poultry  and  the  Family  Garden. 

These  two  elements  of  the  small  country  home  may 
be  antagonistic  forces,  or  they  may  be  mutually 
beneficial.  Among  large  fruit  trees  poultry  of  all 
ages  may  be  of  great  benefit  in  keeping  down  insect 
pests,  and  may  be  kept  in  runs  among  them  the  year 
around.  Among  grapevines,  raspberries,  and  black- 
berries, they  may  be  allowed  to  run  until  the  fruit  be- 
gins to  color.  Among  the  currants  and  strawberries 


THE  FAMILY  GARDEN  129 

small  chickens  may  be  allowed  to  run  if  too  many  are 
not  kept  in  one  place,  but  must  be  removed  as  soon  as 
they  begin  to  pick  off  the  fruit. 

The  vegetable  garden  must  be  fenced  in  or  the  poul- 
try kept  in  an  enclosure  where  they  cannot  get  into  the 
garden,  for  even  small  chickens  will  scratch  and  pick 
the  leaves  from  seedlings  just  coming  out  of  the  ground. 


CHAPTER  VII 


FRUIT  GROWING 


THE  person  who  moves  into  the  country  for  the 
purpose  of  earning  a  living,  must  do  it  with  the 
understanding  that  the  business  of  farming  in 
any   of    its   branches — dairying,   fruit  growing,   market 
gardening,  etc. — must  be   conducted  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples as  any  other  business  to  succeed. 

While  Nature  is  often  lavish  in  her  bounty,  and 
seems  to  give  a  large  increase  for  our  efforts  upon  the 
soil,  average  results  will  show  that  we  are  as  much  de- 
pendent upon  correct  methods,  skilful  management,  and 
hard  work  for  a  good  return  from  our  labor  as  in  any 
other  calling. 

For  the  best  results  we  must  understand  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  the  needs  of  each  crop  to  be  grown  as  to  soil  and 
exposure,  and  the  special  care  required,  from  the  plant- 
ing of  the  seeds  or  plants  to  harvesting  and  marketing. 
To  the  novice  we  would  say:  Go  slow.  Do  not  risk  all 
in  your  first  efforts.  Don't  put  all  of  your  eggs  in  one 
basket.  The  business  of  farming  must  be  learned  just 
the  same  as  any  other  business.  Do  what  you  can 
thoroughly,  be  prepared  for  disappointment,  but  ex- 
pect and  work  hard  for  success.  Be  a  good  scholar,  and 
learn  from  every  possible  source.  Get  acquainted  with 
successful  farmers,  fruit  growers  and  gardeners  in  your 
neighborhood.  As  a  rule  they  are  good  fellows  and 
always  ready  to  assist  a  beginner  in  every  possible  way. 
Take  their  advice,  but  adopt  only  that  which  applies  to 
your  immediate  conditions. 

130 


FRUIT  GROWING  131 

Equipment  Required. 

The  equipment  required  for  successful  fruit  growing  in- 
cludes suitable  soil  and  exposure,  tools  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  saws  and  shears  for  pruning,  ladders  for 
gathering  the  fruit,  space  for  preparing  the  fruit  for 
market  and  storing  until  sold.  A  spraying  outfit  is  also 
needed  in  every  section  of  the  country  to  protect  our 
crops  from  insects  and  fungous  pests. 

Soil. — In  most  sections  of  the  Eastern  United  States, 
only  small  areas  of  one  kind  of  soil  may  be  found.  The 
land  is  so  tumbled  about  that  we  may  find  clay,  loam, 
sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  some  with  slopes  in  every  direc- 
tion, so  that  suitable  land  in  small  areas  for  any  of  the 
hardy  fruits  may  be  found  in  almost  every  direction. 

Plows. — For  working  the  land  a  large  plow  for  break- 
ing up  and  a  small  one  for  working  in  among  the  trees 
and  small  fruits  are  needed.  If  the  fruit  plantations  are 
small  several  owners  may  unite  and  own  one  sulky  or 
other  kind  of  large  plow. 

Harrows. — Much  labor  is  saved  in  fitting  and  work- 
ing the  land  among  trees  by  the  use  of  harrows.  The 
ordinary  wheel,  shears,  or  'spring-tooth  harrows  will  do 
good  work  around  trees  while  small,  but  when  the 
branches  spread  and  droop  to  the  ground  a  special 
form  of  harrow,  in  which  the  blades  are  spread  apart, 
must  be  used.  This  enables  the  horses  to  go  outside 
the  branches  while  the  harrow  hugs  in  under  them. 

Cultivators. — Most  of  the  harrows  in  use  are  made  for 
two  horses,  but  as  one  horse  can  generally  do  all  the 
work  on  a  small  fruit  plantation,  the  cultivator  becomes 
the  chief  implement  for  working  the  soil  between  the 
trees  and  among  small  fruits.  Many  of  these  tools  are 
provided  with  several  kinds  of  teeth,  wings  and  other 
combinations,  like  the  Planet  Jr.,  Iron  Age,  etc.  The 


132  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

spring-tooth  cultivator  is  especially  useful  in  stony 
soil,  its  action  being  lifting  rather  than  scraping  or 
dragging,  as  with  many  others.  With  the  harrow  or 
cultivator,  starting  early  in  the  spring  when  the  ground 
is  soft,  the  land  may  be  kept  in  a  fine,  mellow  condi- 
tion without  the  use  of  the  plow. 

Weeders.— After  the  surface  of  the  ground  has  been 
made  fine  and  mellow  the  weeder  will  keep  down  all 
weeds  if  run  frequently  enough,  and  with  it  spread  wide 
one  can  go  over  a  large  area  in  a  short  time.  The  weed- 
ers  with  straight  teeth  do  better  work  than  those  with 
curved  teeth,  though  the  "adjustable  weeders"  which 
have  curved  teeth  are  convenient  for  running  between 
narrow  rows. 

Spades  and  Spading  Forks  become  a  necessity  in 
digging  and  planting  trees  and  bush  fruits,  and  in  dig- 
ging about  young  trees  or  in  places  where  the  plow  will 
not  reach.  The  spading  fork  is  more  serviceable,  and  is 
easily  used  where  the  soil  is  full  of  small  stones  or  coarse 
organic  matter. 

Hoes  and  Rakes. — While  we  may  do  nearly  all  of  the 
work  about  small  trees  and  small  fruit  plants  with  the 
cultivator,  there  will  be  some  spaces  where  the  hand  hoe 
must  be  used.  As  about  all  of  the  necessary  stirring 
of  the  soil  is  done  by  the  cultivator  or  harrow,  the  only 
use  for  the  hoe  is  to  cut  up  small  weeds  that  grow 
around  the  hills,  and  this  hoe  should  have  a  thin,  sharp 
blade  for  cutting  only.  The  triangular  hoe  shown  in 
Fig.  41  will  be  found  the  most  satisfactory  for  all  kinds 
of  garden  hoeing  except  hilling  up,  and  that  can  gen- 
erally be  best  done  with  the  cultivator  or  the  hand 
wheel-hoe. 

For  stirring  the  soil  among  the  rows  of  garden  plants 
where  the  cultivator  cannot  run,  the  steel-toothed  gar- 
den rake  is  a  tool  that  will  do  more  work  than  the  hoe. 


FRUIT  GROWING  133 

Two  rakes  are  needed,  one  with  twelve  to  fifteen  teeth 
to  work  between  the  rows  and  one  with  four  to  six 
teeth  to  work  in  between  the  plants  and  hills.  The 
wheel  hand-cultivator  shown  in  Fig.  40  will  be  found 
useful  among  the  small  fruits.  With  the  large  wheel 
of  this  hoe  one  can  run  it  easily  and  do  much  better 
work  than  with  a  smaller  wheel. 

Trowels. — For  transplanting  strawberry  and  other 
small  plants  one  cannot  get  along  without  the  garden 
trowel.  Those  with  the  shank  welded  to  the  blade  are 
better  than  those  with  the  shanks  riveted. 

Saws. — In  growing  tree  fruits  saws  are  necessary,  for 
while  we  should  never  make  a  cut  upon  a  tree  without 
some  good  reason,  there  are  many  times  when  we  must 
prune  more  or  less.  For  cutting  off  large  branches  a  saw 
with  rather  large  teeth  is  needed,  the  teeth  pointing  for- 
ward a  little,  like  the  splitting  saw,  and  set  rather  wide. 
For  cutting  small  branches,  grafting,  etc.,  a  saw  with 
fine  teeth  is  better.  The  Paragon  saw  has  a  curved 
blade,  the  teeth  on  the  inside  pointing  toward  the 
handle  while  those  on  the  outside  point  toward  the  end. 
This  enables  the  pruner,  when  in  the  tree  or  on  the  lad- 
der, to  reach  a  branch  over  his  head  or  at  arm's  length 
in  front  and  cut  without  bearing  down,  simply  pulling 
the  saw  forward,  while  a  branch  lower  down  may  be 
cut  by  running  the  saw  forward  and  downward.  A 
long  slender  saw  is  very  convenient  for  cutting  when 
two  branches  come  close  together,  or  if  placed  upon  a 
pole  to  cut  small  branches  that  could  not  be  reached 
from  the  ladder,  and  for  marking  from  the  ground 
branches  that  are  to  be  cut  by  men  in  the  trees. 

Pruning  Shears  and  Hooks. — Pruning  shears  with 
handles  two  to  three  feet  long  are  very  serviceable  for 
cutting  stout  canes  of  raspberries,  grapevines,  and  low 
branches  from  fruit  trees.  Pruning  hooks  with  long 


134  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

handles  are  indispensable  for  cutting  the  ends  of  long 
shoots  in  the  tops  of  trees,  and  cutting  off  clusters  of 
insects  and  their  nests.  The  thorny  dead  canes  of  the 
blackberry  plantation  are  best  cut  out  with  a  hooked 
blade  attached  to  a  fork-handle  about  four  or  five  feet 
long. 

The  hand  pruning  shears  are  needed  for  pruning 
vines,  shrubs,  currant  bushes,  and  the  ends  of  raspberry 
and  blackberry  canes,  etc. 

Horses  and  Wagons. — The  labor  conditions  are  such 
at  the  present  time  that  little  or  no  profit  can  be  made 
from  farm  or  garden  crops  if  we  have  to  hire  much  help ; 
therefore  we  must  do  all  that  is  possible  with  horse 
power,  and  horses  and  wagons  are  needed  upon  the 
farm  both  for  pleasure  and  profit.  Wagons  are  needed 
to  draw  supplies  and  carry  produce  to  market.  For 
soft,  perishable  stuff  a  spring  wagon  is  useful,  but  for 
carting  manure,  and  heavy  farm  products,  a  wagon 
without  springs  is  better.  By  using  bolster  springs  a 
wagon  may  be  quickly  changed  from  one  to  the  other. 
The  manure  spreader,  mowing  machine,  horse  rake,  and 
weeder,  are  desirable  even  upon  a  small  place  and  become 
a  necessity  when  a  large  business  in  general  farming  is 
done. 

Packing  and  Storage  Room. — With  almost  all  kinds 
of  fruit  some  place  is  needed  in  which  to  prepare  it  for 
market  or  store  it  for  a  greater  or  less  time  after  it  is 
gathered.  For  small  fruits  we  need  a  place  where  they 
can  be  put  into  a  cool  atmosphere  after  being  picked 
and  be  kept  until  shipped.  This  may  be  a  cool  cellar  or 
basement  room  on  the  north  side  of  the  house  or  other 
building,  or  it  may  be  a  cool  room  with  ice  stored  over- 
head or  along  the  sides.  The  former,  however,  is  better, 
the  atmosphere  being  dry — while  the  latter  will  often  be 
quite  moist.  For  storing  fruit  and  vegetables  during  the 


FRUIT  GROWING  135 

winter,  a  cellar  where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  near 
freezing  is  desirable.  It  should  be  slightly  moist  to  pre- 
vent wilting  of  fruit  or  vegetables.  If  the  cellar  is  too 
dry,  fruit  and  vegetables  may  be  kept  from  wilting  by 
storing  in  forest  or  other  tree  leaves.  If  the  latter,  how- 
ever, are  too  moist  and  the  cellar  is  very  warm  they  will 
heat  and  cause  decay. 

FRUIT  GROWING  AS  A  BUSINESS. 

Fruit  growing  has  many  attractions.  It  is  a  business 
in  which  we  often  hear  of  large  profits  being  made,  yet 
when  we  come  to  sum  up  the  average  we  find  that  fail- 
ures are  frequent  and  the  business  is  not  more  profit- 
able than  many  others.  It,  however,  has  many  attrac- 
tions aside  from  the  financial  question.  The  fruit  trees 
in  bloom  and  trees  and  vines  in  fruit  are  especially  beau- 
tiful; and  the  study  of  varieties,  and  watching  the  devel- 
opment of  the  plant  or  tree  from  small  beginnings,  keep 
us  interested  in  things  outside  ourselves.  When  prop- 
erly and  skilfully  conducted,  large  profits  may  be  made 
from  all  of  our  fruit  crops. 

The  markets  of  our  country  are  among  the  best  in 
the  world.  Our  people  can  and  do  pay  better  prices  for 
choice  products  than  any  other  people.  Yet  the  supply 
of  choice  fruit  that  comes  to  our  markets  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  is  so  great  that  prices  do  not  rule  high. 
Choice  fruit,  however,  will  always  sell  at  good  prices,  and 
when  economically  grown  there  is  often  a  large  profit  in 
growing  it. 

The  Apple. 

This  is  the  most  important  tree  fruit  of  the  temperate 
zone.  It  is  grown  from  Mexico  to  Northern  Canada  and 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Apples  grown  from 
New  York  City  to  Northern  Canada  and  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Michigan  are  of  better  quality  than  those 


136  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

from  any  other  section  of  the  world.  Apples  from 
Colorado,  Oregon,  Washington,  Nebraska,  and  other  ex- 
treme Western  states  are  often  of  large  size  and  beau- 
tiful color,  but  are  coarse  in  texture  and  of  poor  quality. 
The  apple  is  very  prolific,  single  trees  frequently  yield- 
ing fifteen  to  twenty  barrels  of  fruit.  Two  acres  are 
known  to  have  produced  fruit  in  one  season  that  sold 
for  $500.  There  are  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of 
Worcester,  Mass.,  seven  young  trees  that  produced 
one  hundred  and  seven  dollars  ($107)  worth  of 
fruit  in  a  single  season.  Three  trees  in  Williamsburg, 
Mass.,  are  reported  to  have  yielded  sixty-five  barrels  of 
apples. 

The  Best  Soil. 

The  soil  best  suited  for  the  growth  of  the  apple  is  a 
strong  moist  loam,  a  clay  loam,  or  a  clay  soil,  well  under- 
drained.  The  noted  apple  growing  sections  of  the  coun- 
try are  Nova  Scotia,  Maine,  Canada,  northern  New 
England,  Champlain  Valley,  Vermont,  northern  New 
York,  and  Michigan,  and  other  localities  where  the  soil 
is  "good  grass  land."  The  best  results  are  obtained 
where  the  land  is  deeply  fitted  and  kept  thoroughly  cul- 
tivated. If  it  is  not  in  good  condition  to  start  with,  it 
may  be  cheaply  made  so  by  growing  and  plowing  under 
cover  crops  like  clover,  rye,  peas  and  oats,  soybean,  corn, 
peas  and  barley,  etc.,  using  from  300  to  500  pounds  of 
some  good  grain  fertilizer  per  acre,  or  a  light  dressing  of 
manure,  if  the  land  is  very  poor.  Thus  upon  land 
plowed  the  spring  previous  to  planting  we  may  sow  very 
early  peas  and  oats,  one  and  one-half  bushel  of  the  former, 
two  of  the  latter.  When  the  peas  are  in  bloom  and  the 
oats  heading  out  plow  under  and  at  once  sow  buckwheat. 
Let  this  grow  until  the  first  to  middle  of  August,  then 
plow  under  and  sow  peas  and  barley.  This  latter  crop 
will  grow  until  severe  freezing  weather,  and  should  be 


FRUIT  GROWING 


137 


allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground  until  the  following  spring 
to  protect  it  from  wind  and  washing.  If  the  growth  is  a 
good  one  no  weeds  will  start  early  in  the  spring  and  it 
may  be  plowed  under  at  any  time  up  to  the  middle  of 
May  or  when  one  is  ready  to  plant  the  trees.  This  treat- 
ment will  put  the  land  in  condition  for  a  quick  growth 
of  trees,  and  any  crop  that  may  be  planted  among 
them. 

Selection  and  Arrangement  of  Trees. 

Young  quickly 
grown,  No.  i  apple 
trees,  two  years  old, 
should  be  selected. 
If  these  can  be  found 
in  nurseries  near  at 
home  they  are  much 
to  be  preferred  to 
those  bought  from  dis- 
tant nurseries,  there 
are  so  many  risks  of 
injury  in  transporting 
them  a  long  distance. 
Only  well  known  and 
reliable  nurseries 
should  be  patronized 
unless  one  can  see  the 
trees  before  purchas- 
ing. Fall  is  the  best 
time  forplantingapple 
and  pear  trees,  while 
the  peach,  plum  and 
cherry  had  better  be  FIG.  42 
planted  in  the  spring. 

In  the  orchard  it  is  generally  best  not  to  mix  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  fruits,  but  peaches  may  be  set  in  among 


« 


'  No.  1  Two-Year-Old  Tree  as  it 
comes  from  the  Nursery;  "6,"  the  same 
Properly  Pruned  for  Planting. 


138  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

the  apples,  as  they  are  short  lived  and  an  income  may  be 
expected  after  from  four  to  six  years,  that  will  ma- 
terially aid  in  paying  expenses,  and  under  favorable  con- 
ditions might  pay  all  expenses  to  date.  In  the  accom- 
panying scheme  standard  varieties  of  apples  like  the 
Baldwin,  King,  Spy,  etc.,  are  planted  forty  to  fifty  feet 
apart,  with  "fillers," — varieties  that  come  into  bearing 
early  and  make  rather  small  trees,  like  Hubbardston, 
Wealthy,  etc., — set  in  between  at  twenty  to  twenty-five 
feet  distance.  Upon  rather  light  land  where  the  trees 
will  not  grow  to  very  large  size  this  distance  may  be 
forty  feet  for  the  permanent  trees  and  twenty  for 
the  fillers.  If  the  land  is  suitable  and  is  on  an  elevation, 
with  a  north  or  western  exposure,  peach  trees  may  be 
used  as  fillers,  but  if  on  a  southern  exposure  they  will 
not  do  as  well  unless  the  elevation  is  quite  high  above 
the  surrounding  land. 

At  these  distances  crops  of  vegetables  or  any  other 
hoed  crop  may  be  planted  among  the  trees  for  six  to 
eight  years,  though  these  crops  will  not  prove  as  profit- 
able among  the  trees  as  in  open  fields  by  themselves. 

Cultivation. 

If  hoed  garden  crops  are  grown  among  the  trees  this 
is  all  the  cultivation  needed,  but  fertilization  material 
sufficient  for  both  crops  must  be  applied  or  the  trees  will 
suffer.  Frequently,  however,  it  may  be  best  not  to  grow 
any  crop  under  or  between  the  trees,  in  which  case  the 
cultivation  must  be  wholly  charged  to  the  orchard  and 
the  cost  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  point.  The  mod- 
ern orchard  wheel  shears  or  spring-tooth  harrows  are 
so  arranged  that  the  blades  are  carried  out  by  a 
spreader  beyond  the  track  of  the  horses  and  will 
work  up  close  to  the  trees  without  endangering  them 
with  the  eveners  or  whiffletrees.  With  one  of  these  mod- 


FRUIT  GROWING  139 

ern  tools  run  frequently,  the  work  of  cultivating  an 
orchard,  killing  all  weeds,  and  keeping  in  the  moisture 
in  dry  weather,  will  be  reduced  to  a  very  low  figure. 

A  Cover  Crop. 

This  'cultivation  should  be  kept  up  from  the  beginning 
of  growth  in  the  spring  until  about  August  ist,  when 
peas  and  barley  may  be  sown,  which  will  lie  on  the 
ground  during  the  winter,  to  protect  the  land  from 
blowing  and  washing,  and  can  be  plowed  under  at  any 
time  up  to  June.  The  advantage  of  this  crop  over 
clovers,  rye,  or  vetch,  is  that  it  makes  no  growth  during 
the  spring  to  carry  off  moisture  or  plant  food,  which 
might  result  in  much  injury  in  a  severe  drouth  during 
April  or  early  May.  Rye  or  crimson  clover  makes  but 
little  growth  at  the  North  until  the  middle  or  last  of' 
May,  and  would  produce  a  very  small  amount  of  organic 
matter  to  turn  under  until  later  in  the  season.  Red 
clover  makes  a  good  growth  in  the  fall  and  supplies  a 
large  amount  of  organic  matter  in  top  and  root  for 
turning  under.  With  the  above  treatment  no  manure 
and  little  fertilizers  need  be  applied  to  the  trees  until 
they  begin  to  bear. 

Cost  of  an  Orchard. 

The  estimated  cost  of  an  apple  orchard  per  acre  may 
be  stated  as  follows: 

FIRST  YEAR  BEFORE  PLANTING. 

Plowing $3.00 

Peas  and  oats  (seed) 3  .  oo 

Peas  and  barley  (seed) 3  .  50 

Seeding 2.00 

$11.50 


140  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


SECOND    YEAR. 

Plowing  and  harrowing $  3  .  oo 

Apple  trees  109  @  ice .    10.90 

Planting 2  .  oo 

Harrowing 5  .  oo 

Harrowing  and    seeding    with    peas    and 

barley 4 .  oo 

$24.90 

THIRD    YEAR. 

Plowing  and  cultivation $5.00 

Cover  crop  of  peas  and  barley 4.00 

Pruning  and  spraying 3  .  oo 

$12 .00 

SUCCEEDING    YEARS. 

Cultivation  and  cover  crop $10.00 

Spraying  and  pruning 5 .  oo 

$15.00 
Cost  with  garden  crops  in  orchard: 

FIRST    YEAR. 

Fitting  land $i  i .  50 

SECOND    YEAR. 

Plowing  and  harrowing $3  .  oo 

Trees  109  @  IDC 10.90 

Planting 2  .  oo 


$15.90 

SUCCEEDING   YEARS. 

Spraying  and  pruning $5.00 

Cost  with  peach  trees  as  fillers: 

Apple  trees,  30  @  IDC $3.00 

Peach      "      80   "    50 4.00 

$1  2.0O 


FRUIT  GROWING  141 

Apple  trees  will  cost  from  $8  to  $10  per  hundred  and 
peach  trees  from  $4  to  $8  per  hundred,  according  to  size 
and  quantity  purchased,  and  the  difference  in  cost  of 
establishing  an  orchard  with  apple  trees  or  peach  trees 
as  fillers  is  about  $3.90. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  establishing  an 
orchard  on  land  not  given  to  other  crops  for  the  first 
eight  or  ten  years,  after  which  it  is  expected  to  yield 
some  income,  makes  it  a  question  whether  or  not  such  an 
enterprise  with  apples  alone  would  be  profitable  unless 
undertaken  upon  a  large  scale,  when  the  proportionate 
cost  might  be  largely  reduced.  With  peach  trees  as 
fillers  or  when  crops  are  grown  among  the  trees  there  is 
a  much  greater  chance  of  profit. 

Apple  Trees  in  Turj. 

In  strong,  rich,  moist  land,  when  an  abundance  of 
manure  or  mulching  material  is  available,  apple  and 
even  peach  trees  may  be  successfully  grown  in  the 
turf.  This  lessens  the  cost  of  establishment,  but  unless 
the  conditions  are  especially  favorable  the  trees  will  not 
make  as  rapid  growth  as  under  cultivation.  Where 
trees  in  turf  can  be  made  to  produce  a  vigorous  growth 
the  fruit  is  generally  more  brilliant  in  color,  of  better 
quality,  and  will  keep  longer.  This  method,  however, 
is  not  to  be  recommended  unless  the  above  conditions 
can  be  fully  met.  By  this  method  land  that  cannot  be 
used  for  any  other  purpose  except  forest  growth  may  be 
made  to  produce  moderate  crops  of  most  beautiful  and 
highly  colored  and  flavored  fruit. 

Any  coarse  organic  matter  like  swamp  hay,  brakes, 
fine  brush,  forest  leaves,  etc.,  may  be  used  as  a  mulch, 
but  it  must  be  drawn  away  from  the  trunks  of  small 
trees  in  the  fall  to  prevent  mice  from  feeding  upon 
the  bark.  If  the  land  is  covered  with  leaves,  brush  and 


142 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


grass,  it  is  best  to  paint  the  trunks  of  young  trees  with 
freshly  slacked  lime  wash  in  which  is  mixed  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  Paris  green  to  one  gallon  of  the  lime  wash.  An- 
other danger  to  the  trees  under  this  condition  is  from 
fire,  which  if  started  during  high  winds  might  destroy 
many  trees.  The  mulch  should  be  placed  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  trees,  which  in  most  sections  of  the 
Eastern  United  States  is  the  east,  when  the  flames  would 


FIG.  43— A  Tall  Apple  Tree  Before  Pruning. 

be  blown  away  from  them.     If  placed  on  the  north  or 
west  sides  the  flames  would  be  blown  toward  them. 

Renovating  Old  Trees. 

Throughout  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  United 
States  may  be  found  old  trees  in  almost  every  stage  of 
decline  and  of  a  great  many  varieties,  producing  more 
or  less  fruit  but  of  so  poor  quality  as  to  be  of  little  value. 
These  trees  are,  therefore,  neglected  and  serve  only  as 


FRUIT  GROWING 


»43 


breeding  places  for  all  sorts  of  insects  and  fungous  pests. 
Where  the  trunks  and  main  branches  of  these  old  trees 
are  sound  the  tall  spreading  branches  may  be  headed 
in,  the  lower  ones  thinned  out  where  needed,  and 
in  a  few  years  a  more  spreading  and  vigorous  head 
produced. 

If  the  varieties  are  such  as  are  not  in  demand  vigor- 
ous trees  may  be  grafted  and  in  three  or  four  years  made 


.::••- 


FIG.  44— A  Tall  Apple  Tree  After  Pruning. 

to  produce  Baldwin,  Wealthy  or  any  other  variety  for 
which  there  is  a  good  market.  If  the  trees  are  'weak  in 
growth  the  ground  under  them  should  be  first  fertilized, 
and  the  head  cut  back  so  as  to  produce  a  vigorous 
growth. 

Fig.  43  represents  an  old  tree  before  being  pruned. 

Fig.  44  shows  the  same  old  tree  after  pruning. 

Fig.  45  shows  the  same  old  tree  regrafted. 


144 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


Grafting. 


Grafting  is  work  that  any  one  at  all  skilled  in  the  use 
of  a  knife  can  do,  yet  it  will  be  found  that  to  graft  over 
large  trees  will  require  much  time  and  the  young  trees 
should  have  attention  first.  The  process  of  grafting  is 


FIG.  45— A  Tall  Apple  Tree  at  the  End  of  the  First  Season  After 
Heading  Back. 

fully  illustrated  in  most  works  upon  fruit  culture  but  a 
brief  description  may  be  desirable  here  (Figs.  46,  47,  48). 

Tools  for  Grafting. 

For  this  work  one  needs  a  fine-toothed  saw  to  cut  off 
the  stock,  a  large  knife  to  pare  the  end  of  the  stock,  a 
grafting  chisel  to  split  the  stock,  a  small  sharp  knife  to 
cut  the  scion,  and  wax  for  covering  the  wound.  Begin- 
ning at  the  top  of  the  tree,  stocks  from  one  to  three  inches 
in  diameter  are  cut  off  squarely,  at  a  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  tree  that  will  make  a  good  formed  head. 


FRUIT  GROWING 


These  stocks  are  pared  smoothly;  then,  beginning  at 
the  highest  so  that  the  grafts  inserted  will  not  be  broken 
out,  the  stocks  are  split  with  the  chisel,  and  the  wedge 

inserted  to  hold  open  the  cleft :. 

until  the  scion  is  inserted,  as  in 
Fig.  46.     The  scion  (a  part  of 
a  shoot  of  one   year's  growth 
with  two  buds    upon    it,    cut   • 
from  the  outside  of  the  tree,)  is   | 
then  cut  wedge-shaped  in  two 
directions  and  inserted  into  the   j 
stock  so  that  the  inner  bark  of  ., 

i  IG.  46— Grafting  :  How  the  Stock 

both  scion  and  stock  shall  be  in  is  Cut  and  Split, 

contact   as   much   as  possible.     When    the   scions    are 
in    place    the    wedge    is   knocked   out    and    the    stock 


FIG.  47 — Grafting :  How  the  Scions  are  Cut. 

presses  the  two  firmly  together.  Should  the  stock  be 
less  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  it  is  generally  best  to 
bind  it  firmly  with  raffia  fibre  or  other  soft  flat-tying 
material.  When  all  is  done  every  cut  surface  must  be 
covered  with  wax  to  keep  out  air  and  water  (Fig.  48). 


146  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Grafting  wax  may  be  purchased  of  any  dealer  in  horti- 
cultural supplies,  or  may  be  made  of  four  parts  rosin, 
two  parts  beeswax,  and  one  part  tallow  or  linseed  oil. 
When  these  are  thoroughly  melted  together  in  a  kettle 
and  cooled  a  little  the  mixture  may  be  poured  into  a  pail 
of  water  and  then  drawn  out  in  sticks  like  molasses 
candy,  or  it  may  be  allowed  to  become  nearly  hard  and 

then  cut  out  of  the  kettle 
and  drawn.  For  grafting  in 
cold  weather  a  little  more  oil 
or  tallow  may  be  used.  In 
covering  the  wounds  the  wax 
is  drawn  out  in  small  strips 
and  pressed  firmly  over  the 
split  on  each  side,  over  the 
top  of  the  cleft,  crowding  it 

FIG.  48— Grafting:  Stock  After  .    r 

the  Wax  Has  Been  Put  On.  down  into  the  cleft,  and  a 
little  on  the  end  of  each  scion.  To  keep  the  wax  from 
sticking  to  the  fingers  a  little  soap  or  beef  or  mutton 
tallow  may  be  rubbed  over  the  hands. 

Time  for  Grafting. — For  the  apple  and  pear  the  best 
time  is  just  as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell.  For 
plums  and  cherries  the  work  should  be  done  a  week  or 
two  earlier.  Fig.  49  shows  a  tree  one  year  after  graft- 
ing, Fig.  50  one  three  years  after  grafting. 

Pruning  or  regrafting  alone,  however,  will  not  reno- 
vate old  fruit  trees  permanently;  more  plant  food  of 
some  kind  must  be  applied.  A  heavy  mulch  of  straw, 
coarse  manure,  forest  leaves,  brush,  etc.,  spread  out  as 
far  as  the  branches  reach,  or  plowing  and  cultivating 
must  be  given  them,  or  they  will  relapse  into  their  old 
condition  in  a  very  few  years.  To  produce  high  color 
and  fine  quality  in  our  fruit  some  potash  is  needed  in 
addition  to  the  fertilizing  elements  in  our  stable  manure 
and  mulch.  This  may  be  wood  ashes  from  one-half  to 


FRUIT  GROWING  147 

one  ton  per  acre  or  300  to  500  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
potash  per  acre.  If  the  trees  are  making  a  slow 
growth  of  wood  from  100  to  300  pounds  of  nitrate  of 


FIG.  49 — An  Apple  Tree  One  Year          FIG.  50 — An  Apple  Tree  Three  Years 
After  Grafting.  After  Grafting. 

soda  sown  just  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell  will  force  the 
growth  of  wood  early  in  the  season  and  produce  an 
early  ripening  of  the  fruit  in  the  fall. 

Pruning  Fruit  Trees. 

All  fruit  trees  will  grow  out  of  shape  and  condition 
for  producing  the  most  and  best  crops  of  fruit  if  left  to 
themselves,  and  they  may  be  either  improved  or  injured 
by  pruning.  The  apple  orchard  of  the  Eastern  United 
States  as  a  rule  has  been  seriously  injured  by  pruning. 
We  have  usually  planted  too  closely,  then  as  the  trees 
grow  together  the  lower  branches  become  weak  and  we 
cut  them  off,  and  the  process  is  kept  up  until  we  have 
but  a  few  long  bare  branches  stretching  high  into  the 
air  (Fig.  51). 

The  sap  moves  slowly  in  these  long  bare  branches,  the 
leaves  are  small  and  the  fruit  imperfect  in  color,  small 


148 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


and  of  poor  quality.     The  remedy  for  this  is,  first,  for 
young  trees,  to  plant  further  apart,  and  for  old  trees, 


FIG.  51 — An  Old  Orchard  Pruned  from  Below  Only. 

to  thin  out  where  too  close  and  cut  back  the  long 
branches  and  thus  force  the  growth  into  the  lower 
branches  as  shown  in  Figs.  52,  53  and  54. 


FIG.  52— An  Old  Orchard  Before  Pruning. 

In  an  orchard  with  trees  planted  twenty  to  twenty-five 
feet  apart,  when  the  branches  begin  to  touch  we  may 
obtain  just  as  much  fruit  if  one-half  of  them  are  cut  out, 


FRUIT  GROWING 


149 


and  those  remaining  will  go  on  improving,  while  if  we 
do  not  thin  out  all  will  be  seriously  injured  in  a  very 


FIG.  53— An  Old  Orchard  After  Pruning. 

few  years.     Fig.  55   shows  a  perfect  tree  produced  by 
an  abundance  of  room  and  heading  in  from  the  top. 


FIG.  54 — An  Old  Orchard  the  Autumn  After  Prunine. 

Don't  Cut  Away  all  the  Sprouts  Inside  the  Tree. 

Most  trees  that  have  been  pruned  until  the  bare 
branches  stretch  high  in  the  air  are  making  a  great 
effort  to  overcome  the  injury  by  throwing  out  numerous 
sprouts  and  suckers.  These  should  not  all  be  cut  off, 


150  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

but  where  there  is  space  above  for  them  to  develop  they 
should  be  allowed  to  grow,  when  in  a  few  years  they 

become  the  best  part 
of  the  trees  and  we 
may  then  thin  out 
some  of  the  old  wood 
that  has  become  weak. 
If  a  few  of  these 
sprouts  are  allowed  to 
grow  each  year  we 
will  have  an  entirely 
new  head  in  a  very 

FIG.  55— A  Perfectly-Shaped  Apple  Tree, 

Produced  by  Cuttinar  In  the  Tops.  few    years.         Fig.     56 

shows    a   convenient   ladder  for  working    among    low 
trees. 

Varieties. 

There  is  no  section  of  the  country  where  too  many 
worthless  varieties  of  apples  are  not  grown.  There  is 
hardly  a  state  in  the  union  where  more  than  five  or  six 
kinds  can  be  grown  with  much  profit.  To  decide  what 
varieties  one  had  best  grow  one  must  consult  the  mar- 
kets, and  the  neighboring  growers  as  to  what  they  find 
the  best  adapted  to  their  soil  and  most  profitable.  In 
old  orchards  we  must  get  rid  of  the  worthless  varieties 
by  cutting  them  down  or  regrafting,  as  there  can  be  only 
loss  in  caring  for  them. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  sho'rt  list  that  will  be  best 
for  all  localities,  but  the  following  is  suggested  as  one 
that  includes  varieties  of  especial  value  in  many  localities: 

Summer. — Astrachan,  Williams,  Yellow  Transparent. 

Autumn. — Gravenstein,  Wealthy,  Macintosh,  Fall 
Pippin. 

Winter. — Baldwin,  Hubbardston,  Spy,  King,  Sutton, 
Roxbury  Russett. 


FRUIT  GROWING  151 

HARVESTING  APPLES. 

Much  of  the  value  of  any  fruit  crop  depends  upon  how 
it  is  harvested.  For  first-class  fruit  it  must  be  hand 
picked,  though  with  low-headed  young  trees  and  a  mulch 
on  the  ground  we  may  let  such  varieties  as  Astrachan, 
Williams,  Wealthy,  Gravenstein,  etc.,  drop  to  the 
ground,  and  sell  them  at  good  prices  for  immediate  use. 

For  harvesting  apples  a  variety  of  lengths  of  ladders  is 
necessary,  according  to  the  character  of  the  trees.  The 
shorter  the  ladder  that  can  be  used  the  better  and 
quicker  will  the  picking  be  done.  The  tripod  ladder 
shown  in  Fig.  56  is  a  very  cheap  one  and  easily  con- 
structed, one  that  will  stand  anywhere  and  occupies 
little  space  when  the  leg  is  folded  in..  The  leg  is  bolted 
in  between  the  two  side  pieces,  making  a  very  strong  but 
light  ladder. 

Small  baskets  holding  from  a  peck  to  a  half  bushel 
with  a  bale  are  necessary  to  pick  into  while  in  the  tree. 

Time  for  Harvesting  Apples. 

Early  apples  to  be  sent  to  market  must  be  picked  as 
soon  as  fully  grown  but  before  they  become  mellow. 
Such  varieties  as  Astrachan,  Williams,  Gravenstein, 
etc.,  as  previously  mentioned,  if  intended  for  a  local  mar- 
ket, may  be  allowed  to  fall  upon  mulch  if  the  trees  are 
not  too  high.  When  ripened  in  this  manner  the  fruit  is 
more  brilliantly  colored,  of  better  quality,  and  is  more 
cheaply  picked  from  the  ground  than  from  the  trees. 

Winter  varieties  should  not  be  picked  until  fully 
grown  and  well  colored,  but  before  severe  weather,  which 
in  the.  New  England  states  ranges  from  September  20  to 
October  20,  according  to  the  season  and  the  variety. 

To  keep  well,  apples  should  be  put  into  a  cool  place  as 
soon  as  possible  after  picking.  This  may  be  a  north  shed, 


152  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

or  a  north  room  in  the  basement  of  the  dwelling-house, 
unless  one  has  a  cold-storage  room  cooled  by  ice  or  other 
artificial  means.  They  may  be  picked  and  put  into  clean 
dry  barrels  or  boxes  and  put  at  once  into  the  shed  or 
cellar  stacked  one  above  another,  or  put  in  shallow  bins. 

To  keep  the  temperature  low  where  there  is  no  arti- 
ficial means  of  cooling,  doors  and  windows  may  be 
opened  on  cold  nights  and  closed  during  the  daytime. 

The  temperature  may  be  reduced  to  the  right  point 
at  start  by  using  a  mixture  of  salt  and  ice  (ice  cream 
freezing  mixture) ,  in  large  tubs  or  boxes.  A  half  ton  of 
ice  and  50  to  100  pounds  of  salt  will  cool  quite  a  large 
space  down  to  35°  to  40°,  at  which  apples  will  keep 
until  cold  weather  comes  on,  when  the  temperature  may 
be  reduced  to  32°,  which  is  about  the  best  point  for  keep- 
ing this  fruit. 

The  Best  Package  for  Apples. 

For  shipping  apples  to  distant  markets,  the  barrel 
seems  to  be  the  most  in  favor,  in  most  sections  of  the 
country,  but  for  local  markets  in  Eastern  United  States 
the  bushel  box  is  very  largely  used.  This  is  practically 
a  return  package.  You  deliver  your  fruit  and  get  an 
empty  box  in  return  or  are  paid  its  value.  As  ordinarily 
marketed  the  fruit  is  not  faced  but  the  box  is  filled  a 
little  above  the  level  with  the  top  of  the  box  so  that 
they  cannot  be  stacked  one  above  another.  By  the  use 
of  a  cover  facing  may  be  done,  the  cover  being  nailed  on 
and  the  bottom  taken  off;  the  fruit  is  faced  on  this 
cover,  and  when  the  box  is  full  the  bottom  is  nailed  on. 
By  this  method  the  apples  are  more  or  less  bruised,  but 
by  putting  -a  cushion  of  corrugated  paper  under  the 
cover  this  may  be  obviated.  The  box  is  much  more 
easily  handled,  occupies  less  space  in  shipping  and  stor- 
ing, and  supplies  nearer  the  amount  of  fruit  the  con- 


FRUIT  GROWING  153 

sumer  demands.  Extra  fancy  fruit  in  boxes  often  sells 
for  from  $1.50  to  $3.00  per  bushel  box.  The  method  of 
packing  and  heading  apples  in  barrels  is  shown  in 
Fig.  98. 

Insects  Attacking  the  Apple. 

The  most  injurious  insects  attacking  the  apple  are  the 
codling  moth,  apple  maggot,  and  apple  borer.  The  cod- 
ling moth  is  the  insect  that  makes  the  wormy  apples. 
The  eggs  are  laid  upon  the  apple  or  leaves  near  it,  from 
which  when  hatched  comes  a  very  minute  worm  that 
enters  the  apple  at  the  blossom  end,  feeding  inside,  and 
when  mature  coming  out  at  some  other  point.  The  rem- 
edy for  this  pest  is  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  applied 
in  the  Bordeaux  mixture, — copper  sulphate  and  lime — 
(see  experiment  station  bulletins) ,  first,  just  as  soon  as  the 
petals  of  the  flowers  have  fallen,  and  second,  a  week  or 
ten  days  later.  Much  may  also  be  done  to  keep  this  pest 
under  control  by  picking  up  all  dropped  fruit  and  feed- 
ing it  to  pigs  or  other  animals. 

The  apple  maggot,  the  insect  that  works  so  abundantly 
in  sweet  and  mild-flavored  fruit,  causing  decay  in  a  very 
short  time,  cannot  be  destroyed  by  any  spraying  ma- 
terial, but  its  depredations  may  be  greatly  reduced  by 
feeding  the  fruit  as  mentioned  above  for  the  codling 
moth. 

The  apple  borer  attacks  the  trunk,  especially  of  young 
trees.  The  first  year  it  feeds  upon  the  inner  bark  and 
sap-wood  near  the  ground;  the  second  year  it  works  in 
deeper  and  makes  a  turn  upwards,  when  it  feeds  for  a 
year  and  then  works  out  to  the  bark,  where  it  escapes 
as  a  perfect  insect.  The  remedy  for  this  pest  is  to  ex- 
amine the  trees  in  May  and  again  in  September.  The 
young  larvae  will  be  found  by  paring  off  the  outer  bark 
where  the  chips  are  thrown  out  by  the  young  borers, 


154  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

and  killing  them  with  a  knife.  The  older  borers  must  be 
killed  with  a  flexible  wire  forced  into  their  holes.  If, 
however,  all  of  the  young  borers  are  destroyed  in  May 
and  September  there  will  be  no  large  ones  to  kill  in  this 
way. 

All  holes  made  by  the  escaping  insects  should  be  filled 
with  putty  or  thick  paint  to  prevent  decay  of  the  wood 
around  the  injured  parts.  The  San  Jose  scale  in  some 
sections  is  proving  a  serious  menace  to  apple  growing. 
It  is  destroyed  by  the  lime  and  sulphur  mixture  and  by 
some  of  the  soluble  oils.  For  further  directions  for  the 
control  of  these  pests  see  bulletins  of  experiment 
stations. 

Blights,  Rusts,  Scab,  Etc. 

Of  the  many  fungous  pests  injuring  the  apple,  the  scab, 
a  dark  olive  growth  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit,  is  the  most 
destructive.  This  growth  comes  upon  the  leaves  and 
fruit  at  any  time  from  May  to  October,  when  we  have 
much  moist,  cool  weather.  It  is  destroyed  by  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  The  two  sprayings  for  the  codling  moth 
early  in  the  season  will  prevent  the  growth  of  the  scab, 
after  which  we  must  spray  about  the  last  of  July  and  the 
last  of  August.  When  the  weather  is  wet  at  picking  time 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  spray  just  before  picking  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  .the  scab  in  the  barrels. 

DWARF  APPLES. 

Some  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  much  interest  was 
manifested  in  Dwarf  Apples.  Everybody  was  going  to 
plant  their  front  yards,  back  yards, -and  all  the  waste 
places  about  their  homes,  and  have  apples  for  home  use 
and  for  sale.  These  trees  were  grafted  upon  a  slow- 
growing  stock  called  Doucin  and  Paradise. 

Many  trees  were  sold  by  nurserymen  and   planted  in 


FRUIT  GROWING 


155 


the  home  gardens,  where  they  thrived  for  a  time,  but 
owing  to  the  care  they  required  and  their  failure  to  give 
the  results  promised,  interest  soon  died  out  and  in  ten  or 
fifteen  years  hardly  a  dwarf  apple  tree 
could  be  found.  Within  the  past  three 
or  four  years  the  interest  in  dwarf 
apple  trees  has  been  revived  but  that 
these  will  prove  of  any  permanent  value 
will  require  at  least  a  decade  to  decide. 

If  in  the  small    yards  of   our    city   and 

,  FIG.  56 — A  Con- 
suburban      homes      dwart      trees      Should  venient  and  Cheap 
,                .                                   .  Ladder  for  Work- 

contmue  to  grow  tor  a  tew  years  and  ing  on  LOW  Trees, 
produce  a  fair  amount  of  fruit,  they  will  be  of  much 
value;  but  we  can  hardly  expect  them  to  compete 
with  standard  trees  .for  the  production  of  fruit  for  com- 
mercial purposes. 


CHAPTER   VIII 


THE  PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  PLUMS, 
APRICOTS  AND  NECTARINES 

THE  PEAR. 

WHILE  the  pear  is  not  as  extensively  grown 
as  the  apple,   there  is   a  large   demand  for 
choice  fruit  and  when   well   grown   it   is  a 
paying  crop. 

It  thrives  best  in  a  deep  rich  loam,  though  it  succeeds 
well  in  a  clay  soil  if  well  underdrained.  Like  the  apple, 
the  fruit  is  of  better  color  and  quality,  and  the  trees  are 
less  injured  by  insects  and  fungous  pests,  if  planted  on 
high  elevations  in  full  exposure  to  sunlight  and  air. 
Pear  trees  are  more  subject  to  injury  from  insects  and 
fungous  pests  than  the  apple,  and  for  this  reason,  per- 
haps, we  do  not  often  see  old  pear  trees,  or  orchards  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  years  old,  as  we  do  of  the  apple. 
Being  smaller  in  size  than  the  apple  it  is,  however,  more 
easily  sprayed  and  pruned  and  with  good  care  ought  to 
last  longer. 

Kinds  of  Trees;  Preparing  for  Planting. 

No.  i  trees  two  years  old  are  best  for  planting  and 
they  are  prepared  and  planted  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  apple  (see  page  137).  The  after  care,  cultivation, 
fertilizing  and  pruning  are  also  practically  the  same,  ex- 
cept that  in  pruning  the  leading  centre  shoots  of  young 
trees  must  be  cut  back  more  severely  to  force  an  early 
low  branching  and  fruiting.  Much  growth  of  wood  will 

156 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  1 57 

be  saved  if  the  shoots  are  pinched  off  in  the  summer  than 
if  they  are  allowed  to  grow  and  then  cut  off. 

Pear  trees  are  planted  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet 
apart,  according  to  the  variety  for  standards,  and  twelve 
to  fifteen  feet  for  dwarfs,  though  if  the  latter  are  set 
below  the  point  where  grafted  or  budded  roots  are  formed 
from  the  pear  stock  the  tree  becomes  a  standard 
and  will  need  the  wider  space  first  mentioned.  Dwarf 
trees  are  sometimes  very  satisfactory  if  planted  on  very 
heavy  soil,  as  the  quince  root  upon  which  they  are 
grafted  grows  best  in  such  soil.  Some  varieties  succeed 
better  upon  the  quince  stock  than  others,  and  only  those 
that  do  well  on  this  stock  should  be  planted  as  dwarfs. 

Renovating  Old  Trees. 

The  majority  of  pear  trees  in  the  older  sections  of  the 
United  States  are  very  much  in  the  condition  of  the  apple 
trees — neglected,  unpruned,  and  unsprayed,  and  produc- 
ing fruit  that  hardly  pays  for  harvesting.  To  put  them 
into  condition  to  produce  fruit  that  will  bring  a  fair 
price  in  the  markets,  we  must  first  reduce  the  amount 
of  old  wood  which  is  covered  with  fruit  buds  just  as  we 
would  with  the  currant  or  gooseberry  bushes,  and  by 
fertilization,  mulching,  or  cultivation  induce  some 
strong,  vigorous  growth  that  will  produce  large  and  fair 
fruit.  This  is  done  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for 
the  apple.  Pear  trees  may  be  regrafted  to  desirable 
varieties  and  produce  fruit  more  quickly  than  the  re- 
grafted  apple  tree. 

Varieties. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  pears  of  commercial  value 
is  much  less  than  that  of  the  apple,  but  fewer  kinds  are 
generally  planted.  Those  recommended  and  most  gen- 
erally grown  are: 


158  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Summer. — Bartlett,  Clapp,  Giffard,  Petite  Margaret. 
Autumn. — Seckel,  Sheldon,  Bosc,  Kieffer  (for  canning 
only) . 

Winter. — Hovey,  Lawrence,  Anjou. 

Harvesting  the  Fruit. 

To  be  of  the  best  quality,  pears  should  be  picked  as 
soon  as  fully  grown  but  while  still  hard.  The  right  con- 
dition for  picking  is  indicated  by  a  slight  change  in  color. 
The  mellowing  of  the  wormy  specimens  on  the  trees 
may  indicate  the  time  for  picking.  It  is  best,  how- 
ever, to  pick  only  the  large,  fully  matured  fruit  at 
the  first  picking,  and  allow  the  small  specimens  to  grow 
a  few  days;  they  will  often  double  in  size  in  a  very 
short  time  and  be  of  much  better  color  and  quality. 

Ripening  the  Fruit. 

Pears  are  of  much  better  quality  picked  early  than  if 
allowed  to  ripen  on  the  trees.  To  obtain  the  best  color 
and  quality,  they  must  be  put  into  a  cool,  close,  dark 
place  while  hard.  Placing  in  trays  or  shallow  drawers, 
one  layer  deep,  and  covering  with  a  woollen  blanket 
will  bring  on  a  very  bright  color.  Most  standard  varie- 
ties bring  a  much  higher  price  if  put  into  cold  storage 
for  a  few  weeks  until  the  main  supply  in  the  market  is 
exhausted. 

Packages  for  Pears. 

In  most  Eastern  local  markets  pears  are  sold  in  bushel 
boxes  without  covers.  For  shipping  to  distant  mar- 
kets they  are  packed  in  barrels,  as  apples  are  shipped. 
Some  growers  use  a  half-barrel  cask  rather  large  in 
diameter,  but  if  a  cushion  is  placed  on  the  bottom  and 
top  of  the  bushel  box  hard  fruit  will  ship  as  well  in  this 
package  as  in  the  barrel.  In  most  places  the  grower 
must  ship  in  the  package  demanded  by  the  dealers. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  159 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Pear. 

There  are  but  two  insects  generally  seriously  injurious 
to  the  pear,  the  San  Jose  scale  and  the  pear  psylla.  The 
former  of  these  pests  are  destroyed  by  spraying  with 
the  lime  and  sulphur  mixture  which  the  reader  will  find 
described  in  the  bulletins  of  the  state  experiment  sta- 
tions. Its  presence  upon  the  trees  is  not  noticeable 
except  upon  close  examination.  The  leaves  when  at- 
tacked are  small,  weak,  light  in  color,  and  leaves  and 
twigs  are  covered  with  minute  circular  specks.  These 
specks  soon  become  very  numerous  and  when  they  are 
scraped  off  with  the  back  of  a  knife-blade  slight  exuda- 
tions of  a  yellowish  substance  are  seen.  If  one  finds  an 
unusual  covering  upon  the  twigs,  leaves  or  fruit,  he 
should  send  specimens  at  once  to  the  local  experiment 
station,  and  follow  directions  as  to  their  destruction,  for 
it  takes  but  a  year  or  two  for  them  to  spread  over  whole 
orchards  and  ruin  the  trees. 

The  pear-tree  psylla  is  a  minute  brown  aphis-like  in- 
sect that  flies  about  the  trees  in  early  spring  and  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  leaves  and  tender  twigs.  From  the  eggs 
comes  a  small  flattened  aphis  that  feeds  on  the  juices 
of  the  tender  tissues.  Each  one  of  these  insects  feeds 
in  a  little  pool  of  juice  that  is  sweetish  to  the  taste, 
and  wasps,  flies,  and  hornets  appear  in  large  numbers 
either  to  feed  upon  the  insects  or  upon  this  sweet  liquid. 
The  presence  of  the  aphis  may  be  known  by  the  large 
number  of  these  attendants.  After  the  insects  have 
worked  a  while  the  leaves,  twigs  and  fruit  are  covered 
with  dirt-like  masses,  where  the  dust  of  the  atmosphere 
has  adhered  to  the  sticky  exudations  of  the  insects. 
This  pest  has  not  been  controlled  satisfactorily  in  the 
past,  but  it  is  claimed  that  the  lime  and  sulphur  mixture 
used  for  the  San  Jose  scale  will  destroy  these  also.  If 


160  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

this  should  prove  to  be  the  case,  pear  growing  in  some 
sections  may  again  become  a  profitable  industry. 

The  decline  in  the  business  of  fruit  growing  during  the 
past  few  years  has  been  due  largely  to  the  poor  quality  of 
the  fruit  put  upon  the  market.  We  often  hear  of  choice 
pears  selling  for  from  $2  to  $4  per  bushel,  and  choice 
fruit  can  be  grown,  though  at  an  increased  expense  on 
account  of  insects  and  fungous  pests.  The  more  good 
fruit  there  is  put  into  a  market  the  larger  will  be  the 
demand,  and  in  the  end  with  better  prices,  while  poor 
fruit  will  drive  the  consumers  to  buy  other  kinds.  It  is 
therefore  "up  to"  us,  the  growers,  to  produce  fruit  of 
choice  quality,  using  economically  all  known  means  of 
protecting  our  crops  from  insects  and  disease. 

Fungous  Pests. 

Insects  are  not,  however,  the  worst  obstacles  of  suc- 
cessful pear  growing.  Two  diseases,  known  as  "leaf 
blight "  and  "  fire  blight,  "  are  even  more  destructive.  In 
many  sections,  especially  where  the  trees  are  in  sheltered, 
frosty  locations,  the  pear  trees  are  attacked  by  the  leaf 
blight.  This  is  a  fungous  or  spot  disease  that  appears 
upon  leaves  in  the  middle  of  summer,  often  causing 
them  to  fall.  When  this  occurs  in  July  or  early  August 
new  shoots  and  often  blossoms  start  out  late  in  the 
season.  This  growth  is  weak  and  will  not  withstand  the 
winter,  making  the  tree  more  liable  to  the  attack  of  fire 
blight  the  following  summer.  When  this  fungus  at- 
tacks the  fruit,  it  becomes  hard  and  woody  and  cracks 
open.  A  remedy  for  this  disease  is  the  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, spraying  just  before  the  leaves  open,  just  after  the 
petals  have  fallen,  and  twice  after  at  intervals  of  two  or 
three  weeks.  Trees  that  are  growing  vigorously  are  less 
liable  to  this  or  any  other  disease  than  weak  trees.  A 
very  rank,  soft  growth  of  wood,  however,  may  be  injured 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  16 1 

by  cold,  and  the  next  season  be  more  liable  to  disease 
than  if  the  growth  were  slower  and  yet  vigorous. 

The  fire  blight  is  a  bacterial  disease,  closely  related  to 
small-pox  and  diphtheria  in  the  human  system.  In 
extremely  hot  and  moist  weather  the  spores  (germs)  of 
this  disease,  finding  their  way  into  the  tissue  of  the  trees 
through  the  blossoms  or  soft  new  growth,  grow  in  the 
cells  so  rapidly  that  in  a  few  days  large  branches  or  even 
whole  trees  may  be  killed.  The  first  appearance  is  a 
wilting  of  the  branches  and  leaves;  then  they  turn 
brown,  and  finally  black.  The  remedy  is  first  to  cut 
away  all  diseased  branches  as  soon  as  they  are  attacked, 
then  produce  a  healthful  growth  by  cultivation,  mulch- 
ing, or  the  use  of  fertilizers  containing  a  large  percentage 
of  potash.  The  spraying  done  for  the  leaf  blight  will  no 
doubt  have  a  beneficial  effect  against  this  disease,  as 
will  probably  the  lime-sulphur  mixture  used  for  the  San 
Jose  scale.  No  outside  application,  however,  will  de- 
stroy this  or  any  other  disease  of  our  fruits  after  the 
spores  or  germs  have  gained  entrance  into  the  tissues. 

Much  may  be  done  to  keep  our  pear  and  other  fruit 
trees  from  being  injured  by  insects  and  fungous  pests 
by  so  fertilizing,  cultivating,  and  spraying  as  to  keep 
the  trees  in  a  vigorous,  healthy  growth.  A  liberal  use 
of  fertilizers  containing  a  large  percentage  of  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  or  simply  wood  ashes,  lime,  and  a 
little  sulphate  of  potash,  will  tend  to  a  hard,  compact, 
well-matured  wood  that  will  withstand  blight  and  pro- 
duce a  foliage  that  will  be  resistant  to  leaf  blight  and 
to  insects. 

THE  PEACH. 

In  many  sections  of  the  United  States  from  Georgia 
to  Canada  the  peach  may  be  profitably  grown  when  the 
soil  and  exposure  is  right.  From  New  York  City  south 
along  the  coast  and  along  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michi- 


162 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


FIG.  57— A  Three-Year-Old  Peach  Orcharc 
in  Summer  Growth. 


gan,  where  the  temperature  does  not  run  much  below 
zero  and  shows  little  variation  during  the  winter,  the 
peach  may  be  grown  upon  almost  any  elevation  or  ex- 
posure; but  in  the 
interior  and  at  the 
North  they  must  be 
planted  on  elevated 
land  with  full  expos- 
ure that  will  cause 
firm,  well  -  matured 
wood,  and  where  the 
temperature  does  not 
run  as  low  as  in  the 
valleys.  The  peach 
succeeds  best  in  a 
rather  thin  soil,  but 
it  must  be  made  rich  enough  in  organic  matter  by 
plowing  under  green  crops  or  by  other  means  to  pro- 
duce a  good  growth  of  wood.  For  the  best  results  the 
land  should  be  fitted  by  deep  plowing  and  harrowing. 

Trees  and  Their  Preparation. 

Northern-grown  trees  are  generally  selected  for  plant- 
ing in  northern  sections,  but  if  well  matured  it  matters 
little  whether  they  are  grown  North  or  South,  though 
the  nearer  they  are  grown  to  the  section  where  planted 
the  better.  Trees  of  medium  or  small  size  are  selected, 
as  they  generally  have  more  dormant  lateral  buds  than 
those  of  larger  size.  As  a  rule  the  No.  2  trees  in  any  lot 
are  those  of  a  weaker  growth  and  will  make  smaller 
trees;  therefore  it  would  be  better  to  buy  from  a  lot 
where  all  have  made  a  rather  small  growth  and  select 
the  best  of  these, 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  163 

Pruning  for  Planting. 

Most  large  growers  of  the  peach  trim  the  young  trees, 
before   planting,   back  to   a   single   cane   "  whipstock, " 
cutting  the  end  back  to  from  two  to  three  feet  long, 
allowing  the  head  of  the 
tree   to   be   formed  upon 
this    single  cane.     Others 
cut    the     tree     down    to 
within  two  or  three  inches 
of  the  bud  and  allow  only 
one  bud  to  grow  thus  near 
the  ground,    upon  which 
lateral  branches  are 
formed   at  regular  inter- 
vals from  one  to  two  feet 
from   the    ground.      The 
latter    method   will    pro-     FlG>  58_A  Peach  Tree  Unpruned  for 
duce    the    best    tree     in  Four  Years, 

shape,  but  it  will  require  more  attention  until  the 
head  is  pretty  well  established.  During  the  early  sum- 
mer, until  the  head  is  well  formed,  the  young  trees  must 
have  constant  attention,  pinching  back  or  rubbing  off 
all  shoots  not  desired  to  form  a  perfect  head.  The  aim 
should  be  to  produce  a  regularly  formed  head  with  a 
leader  in  the  center.  Fig.  57  shows  a  peach  orchard 
in  Massachusetts  three  years  old. 

After  Pruning. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth  we  should  have 
a  conical  formed  tree  with  three  or. four  main  branches 
starting  at  from  one  to  three  feet  from  the  ground. 
Before  growth  begins  the  second  year  the  strongest  of 
these  should  be  'cut  back  from  one-half  or  two-thirds 
their  length,  to  give  perfect  form,  and  cutting  out  here 


164 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


and  there  small  shoots  that  tend  to  make  the  head  too 
close.  A  low,  compact  tree  that  will  carry  a  large  crop  of 
fruit  should  be  the  aim,  and  during  the  summer  such 


FIG.  59 — A  Four- Year-Old  Peach  Tree  Before  Pruning. 


FIG.  60— A  Four-Year-Old  Peach  Tree  After  Pruning. 

branches  as  tend  to  outgrow  their  neighbors  must  be 
pinched  off.  Fig.  58  shows  a  tree  unpruned  for  four 
years;  Fig.  59,  a  tree  before  pruning;  Fig.  60  a  tree 
pruned. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  165 

By  frequent  attention  fruit  trees  of  all  kinds  may  be 
kept  in  perfect  condition  for  many  years  by  the  use  of 
the  pocket-knife  and  thumb  and  fingers.  As  the  trees 
grow  old  the  lateral  branches  tend  to  become  weak, 
and  either  die  or  are  cut  away  unless  the  tops  are  heav- 
ily pruned;  and  in  northern  sections,  where  the  fruit 
buds  are  winter-killed,  as  they  frequently  are,  this  non- 
bearing  year  in  old  orchards  is  taken  advantage  of  and 
the  tops  are  cut  back  severely,  thus  forcing  growth  into 
the  lower  branches  and  practically  renewing  the  trees. 
The  cutting  of  large  branches  should  be  done  with  a 
saw  and  never  with  an  axe  or  the  heavy  lever  shears. 
All  wounds  more  than  an  inch  in  diameter  should  be 
painted  with  linseed-oil  paint  to  prevent  decay. 

Peach  trees  are  not  long  lived.  Under  especially 
favorable  conditions  an  orchard  will  last  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  years,  and  individual  trees  sometimes  reach  forty 
to  fifty  years  of  age.  At  the  North,  three  crops  in  five 
years  are  expected  on  the  average,  though  sometimes 
three  or  four  consecutive  crops  may  be  obtained,  while 
on  the  other  hand  the  buds  may  be  destroyed  by  cold  as 
many  consecutive  years. 

The  crop,  too,  varies  much  in  quantity  and  quality, 
according  to  the  season.  In  a  bright,  warm  summer,  or 
where  the  trees  are  on  a  warm,  sunny,  but  high  eleva- 
tion, the  fruit  will  be  of  much  better  quality  than  in  a 
cold,  wet  season  or  cool,  moist  soil  and  north  or  east 
exposure. 

Gathering  and  Marketing  the  Fruit. 

To  be  of  the  best  quality,  peaches  must  be  ripened 
upon  the  trees,  becoming  almost  mellow  before  picking. 
The  stage  of  ripeness  at  which  they  should  be  picked 
can  only  be  determined  by  the  eye.  When  the  fruit  is 
fully  grown  and  the  green  color  has  been  replaced  by  a 


166  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

delicate  shade  of  pink,  white  or  yellow,  and  when  the 
ridge  along  the  suture  seems  soft  and  springy,  it  is  ready 
to  pick  for  the  local  market.  For  home  use  they  may 
become  mellow  before  picking,  but  for  a  distant  market 
they  must  be  decidedly  hard  but  fully  grown  before 
picking. 

Packages  and  Marketing. 

In  almost  every  large  peach-growing  section  some 
distinctive  package  is  used.  Thus  in  the  Lake  Shore 
region  of  Michigan  a  cheap  bushel  basket  is  used;  in 
California,  Georgia,  and  other  Southern  States,  a  six- 
basket  carrier  is  used,  each  basket  holding  about  four 
quarts;  while  through  Maryland,  Delaware,  New  Jer- 
sey, Connecticut  and  the  Northeast  the  fourteen  to  six- 
teen-quart  basket  is  used.  The  first  and  last  of  these 
packages  are,  to  say  the  least,  inconvenient,  but  they  are 
cheap;  the  carrier  is  expensive,  but  carries  the  fruit  in 
a  much  superior  condition  to  the  others  mentioned. 

Varieties. 

New  varieties  of  peaches,  as  of  almost  every  other 
kind  of  fruit,  are  offered  every  year,  and  much  money  is 
expended  upon  them,  yet  few  of  these  prove  of  greater 
value  than  the  old  standard  sorts  and  each  grower 
should  consult  the  markets  and  the  varieties  he  and  other 
growers  have  tried  before  planting  largely  of  any  one 
kind.  Different  varieties,  too,  will  vary  much  in  differ- 
ent seasons,  as  well  as  in  different  soils  and  exposure,  yet 
there  are  those  that  do  well  under  a  great  variety  of 
conditions  and  the  latter  should  be  most  largely  planted 
unless  found  to  fail  under  the  local  conditions  under 
which  they  must  be  planted.  Among  those  that  have 
generally  proved  valuable  may  be  mentioned  Champion , 
Mountain  Rose,  Old  Mixon,  Crawford's  Early,  Craw- 
ford's Late,  Elberta,  and  Fitzgerald. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  167 

Insects  Injuring  the  Peach. 

Only  two  insects  are  seriously  injurious  to  the  peach, 
the  peach  borer  and  the  San  Jose  scale.  The  first  is,  in 
its  fully  developed  stage,  a  small  wasp-like  moth  with 
transparent  wings.  It  lays  its  egg  on  the  trunk  near  the 
ground  and  its  young,  the  larvae  or  borers,  feed  upon  the 
inner  bark  and  sapwood,  but  not  penetrating  deeply 
into  the  wood  as  does  the  apple  borer  and  many  of  its 
class. 

Its  presence  may  be  known  by  masses  of  gum  near  the 
ground  that  come  out  from  the  injured  places.  If  the 
borer  is  present  there  will  be  fresh  chips  mixed  with  the 
gum.  This  gum  is  drawn  away,  a  little  of  the  bark  cut 
off,  and  the  fat  white  larva  is  easily  found  and  de- 
stroyed. The  best  time  to  look  for  these  borers  is  in 
May  and  September.  Placing  sheet  tin  or  fine  wire 
netting  about  the  trunk  of  the  tree  is  of  some  benefit  but 
is  more  expensive  and  not  as  effectual  as  the  knife. 
After  the  borer  has  been  destroyed,  it  is  well  to  press 
the  soil  well  in  place  over  the  injured  parts. 

The  San  Jose  scale  is  a  less  conspicuous  and  far  more 
destructive  pest.  It  is  a  small  scale-like  insect,  so  small 
that  an  individual  scale  is  scarcely  distinguishable  by 
the  naked  eye,  but  it  becomes  so  numerous  that  the 
trunks  and  branches  appear  to  be  covered  with  scale- 
like  deposits.  When  this  crust  of  scale  is  scraped  off 
with  the  knife  many  bodies  are  crushed  and  a  mass  of 
yellow  liquid  is  seen.  This  pest  begins  to  hatch  its  young 
as  soon  as  the  weather  has  become  warm  and  settled; 
a  single  pair  and  its  progeny  may  produce  millions  of 
young  in  a  season.  See  experiment  station  bulletins 
for  method  of  destruction. 


168  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Fungous  Pests. 

The  "peach  curl"  is  a  fungous  disease  that  attacks 
the  leaves  of  peaches  and  the  fruit  of  native  plums, 
causing  the  tissues  to  swell  to  large,  light  yellow  masses 
and  finally  drop  off.  It  does  not  kill  the  tree,  and  soon 
new  leaves  come  out,  but  two  or  three  seasons'  attacks 
are  sufficient  to  so  weaken  the  trees  that  they  become 
an  easy  prey  to  peach  yellows  and  leaf  spot. 

The  "peach  yellows,"  a  disease  as  to  the  nature  of 
which  little  is  known,  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  pest. 
The  leaves  when  attacked  have  a  light  green  or  reddish 
color,  and  the  shoots  are  small  and  wiry.  The  fruit  is 
small,  ripens  prematurely,  is  of  most  brilliant  color,  and 
often  has  a  decidedly  bitter  taste.  The  disease  is 
thought  to  be  contagious,  spreading  from  one  part  of  an 
orchard  to  other  parts,  and  from  one  orchard  to  another, 
but  this  apparent  contagion  may  be  explained  on  the 
theory  that  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  being  the 
same,  all  the  trees  would  be  likely  to  present  the  same 
conditions  of  growth  that  might  result  from  extreme 
heat  or  cold,  or  too  much  or  too  little  moisture.  Trees 
attacked  by  this  disease  seldom  recover  wholly,  though 
by  severe  pruning  back,  and  the  liberal  use  of  fertilizers 
containing  a  large  amount  of  potash,  they  may  live 
many  years  and  produce  much  good  fruit.  The  cost  of 
this  work  and  the  small  cost  of  growing  young  trees  up 
to  bearing  size  make  it  more  profitable  to  cut  out  all 
trees  as  soon  as  they  are  badly  affected  and  replace 
them  with  young  trees.  The  lime  and  sulphur  remedy 
used  for  the  destruction  of  the  San  Jose  scale  has  a 
decidedly  beneficial  effect  upon  the  leaf  curl  and  reduces 
the  danger  of  injury  from  the  yellows,  though  it  is  not  a 
sure  remedy  for  the  latter.  As  with  the  pear,  much  of 
success  in  growing  peaches  depends  upon  the  condition 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC. 


169 


of  the  soil,  the  cultivation  given,  and  the  amount  and 
kind  of  fertilizers  used.  Upon  fairly  good  soil  little  or 
no  fertilizer  need  be  used  until  the  trees  begin  to  bear, 
if  the  land  is  deeply  plowed  at  planting  and  frequently 
cultivated,  especially  during  dry  weather.  Fertilizers 
containing  a  large  amount  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
will  tend  to  produce  hard,  early  ripened  wood  that  will 
withstand  cold  and  extreme  dry  or  wet  weather. 

THE  QUINCE. 

With  large  supplies  of  more  delicate  fruit  from  all 
sections  of  the  world,  the  demand  for  the  quince  has  not 


FIG.  61 — Pear  and  Quince  Trees  and  Blackberries  in  the  Poultry  Yard. 

increased  as  it  has  for  the  other  large  fruits.  It  is  a 
fruit  that  is  not  consumed  uncooked  and  few  families 
use  more  than  a  peck  or  half  bushel  for  canning  or  mak- 
ing preserves,  or  flavoring  apple  or  other  sauces;  yet, 
the  supply  is  not  greater  than  the  demand,  and  many 
growers  find  it  a  paying  crop. 


170  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

For  the  best  results  a  deep,  strong,  rich  soil  is  neces- 
sary. The  best  quince  trees  to  be  found  in  our  average 
gardens  are  those  growing  near  the  overflow  of  the  sink- 
"drain,  or  cesspool,  where  the  soil  is  very  rich,  or  in 
poultry  yards  (Fig.  61);  and  if  one  expects  to  make 
quince  growing  profitable  conditions  somewhat  similar 
to  the  above  must  be  provided.  The  fruit  often  sells 
at  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  peck,  or  three  to 
five  dollars  per  barrel,  and  a  single  tree  will  sometimes 
yield  from  two  to  five  bushels,  so  that  the  income  from 
the  crop  will  warrant  the  rather  large  investment  re- 
quired to  produce  good  fruit. 

Selection  of  Trees. 

Strong  two-year-old  trees,  grown  from  cuttings  or 
grafts  upon  apple  roots,  should  be  selected.  The  tops 
and  roots  should  be  pruned  before  planting  in  the  man- 
ner directed  for  the  apple  and  pear.  Quince  roots  are 
fine  and  fibrous,  and  much  care  is  needed  in  working  fine, 
rich  soil  in  about  them  before  it  is  pressed  into  place. 
The  after-pruning  and  care  is  about  the  same  as  for  the 
apple  and  pear,  but  generally  frequent  cultivation  will 
give  better  results  than  with  trees  in  turf. 

Form  of  the  Trees. 

The  quince  is  trained  in  the  tree  and  in  the  bush  form. 
The  first  has  the  advantage  that  cultivation  can  be 
carried  on  closer  to  the  trunk,  and  that  borers  can  be 
more  easily  dug  from  a  single  trunk  than  where  several 
trunks  are  crowded  together;  while  in  the  bush  form, 
if  one  trunk  is  injured  others  may  keep  on  growing  and 
the  tree  continue  to  produce  fruit,  yet  if  the  single 
trunk  is  seriously  injured  the  whole  tree  is  destroyed. 

For  those  who  are  not  skilful  in  the  work  of  training 
trees,  or  who  have  no  time  for  the  work,  the  bush  form 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  171 

will  be  best,  as  it  is  the  most  natural  and  requires  the 
least  attention.  Quince  trees  may  be  set  about  10  x  10 
feet  each  way,  and  the  heads  kept  in  a  round,  compact 
form,  heading  in  the  strong  shoots  that  tend  to  outgrow 
the  limits  of  this  space  and  thinning  out  the  old  wood, 
allowing  the  young  and  vigorous  wood  full  chance  for 
development.  A  vigorous  growth  of  tree  must  be  kept 
up  in  order  to  produce  fine,  well-colored  fruit.  At 
from  three  to  five  years  in  good  soil  the  quince  should 
begin  to  bear  and  should  yield  fruit  more  or  less  every 
year.  The  trees  are  long  lived  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, but  with  the  "no  care"  method  mostly  in  practice 
they  live  but  a  short  time. 

Varieties. 

There  are  fewer  varieties  of  the  quince  than  of  any  of 
our  other  large  fruits,  the  Orange,  Rea's  and  Champion 
being  the  kinds  generally  grown.  Of  these  the  Orange  is 
most  grown  but  varies  much  under  different  kinds  of 
soil  and  exposure.  Rea's  is  larger  than  the  average 
Orange  quince,  comes  into  bearing  earlier,  and  is  more 
highly  colored.  The  Champion  is  the  latest  of  the  three 
in  ripening,  and  often  fails  to  take  on  the  brilliant  color 
which  is  so  desirable  in  this  fruit. 

Marketing  the  Quince. 

For  the  local  trade  this  fruit  is  sold  by  the  half  peck 
and  peck,  sometimes  packed  in  neat,  handled  baskets. 
For  distant  shipment  they  are  put  up  in  barrels,  half 
barrels,  or  in  covered  baskets  similar  to  those  in  which 
grapes  are  shipped  to  eastern  markets;  but  no  matter 
what  the  package,  when,  closely  packed  they  come  out 
badly  bruised  and  marked  and  do  not  look  attractive  or 
keep  well.  For  the  retail  trade  they  may  be  taken  from 
the  loose  package  and  delivered  unbruised  and  attrac- 
tive, and  will  keep  a  long  time. 


172  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Insects  and  Diseases. 

The  same  insects  that  attack  the  apple  and  pear  also 
injure  the  quince,  and  the  remedies  are  the  same.  The 
round-headed  apple-tree  borer  is  especially  fond  of  the 
quince  and  frequent  examinations  should  be  made  for 
them. 

Of  the  diseases  that  attack  the  quince,  the  fire  blight 
described  under  the  Pear  (page  1 6 1 )  is  often  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  ends  of  the  branches  but  seldom  destroys  the 
entire  tree,  as  it  often  does  with  the  pear.  As  soon  as  it 
appears  all  shoots  attacked  should  be  cut  away  and 
burned.  The  cedar-apple  fungus  often  attacks  the 
young  fruit  and  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  stems  soon 
after  blooming,  stopping  growth  and  causing  the  fruit  to 
become  hard  and  woody.  The  leaf  blight,  a  spot  fungus, 
often  causes  the  leaves  to  fall  in  the  late  summer,  thus 
materially  checking  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  prevent- 
ing the  formation  of  well  matured  wood  for  the  next 
year.  A  remedy  for  these  two  diseases,  and  perhaps  a 
preventive  of  the  fire  blight,  is  the  Bordeaux  mixture, 
applied  just  before  the  blossom  buds  open  and  again  as 
soon  as  the  petals  fall.  If  the  lime  and  sulphur  wash 
was  applied  in  April  for  the  San  Jose  scale,  only  the 
second  application  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  need  be 
made. 

THE  PLUM. 

Three  groups  of  plums  are  now  grown  more  or  less  in 
our  gardens  and  orchards,  the  European,  the  Japanese, 
and  the  American.  The  first  of  these  has  been  grown 
the  longest,  is  represented  by  the  common  blue 
plums,  the  Lombard,  Damson,  etc.,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  is  the  most  profitable,  though  most  subject  to 
injury  from  insects  and  fungous  pests,  and  is  often  in- 
jured by  severe  cold  weather.  This  kind  of  plum  lives 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC. 


173 


longer  than  the  Japanese  when  well  cared  for.  Fig.  62 
shows  trees  more  than  thirty  years  old,  that  bear  large 
crops  of  fruit  every  other  year,  few  varieties  bearing 
every  year.  For  success  a  strong,  moist,  but  well-under- 
drained  soil,  situated  where  the  water  and  cold  will 
drain  off  and  abate  quickly,  is  essential.  The  trees 
should  be  planted  where  there  is  full  exposure  to  the 
north  and  west,  yet  with  a  good  circulation  of  air  and 
sunlight  about  them. 


FIG.  62— Plum  Trees  Over  Thirty  Years  Old. 

Strong,  one-year-old  trees  budded  upon  the  myroba- 
lan  stock  or  native  stock  should  be  selected.  They  are 
pruned  and  prepared  for  planting  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  apple,  the  top,  however,  being  cut  to  a  clean  whip- 
stock  from  three  to  four  feet  high.  Clean  and  frequent 
cultivation  should  be  given,  and  a  little  fertilizer  con- 
taining a  large  percentage  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
if  they  are  not  making  satisfactory  growth. 

The  planting  and  summer  care  are  practically  the  same 
as  for  the  apple  and  peach.  The  trees,  however,  will 
need  more  heading  in  to  make  the  lower  branches  grow. 


174  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

As  the  trees  grow  older,  thinning  out  of  the  old  wood 
will  be  needed  to  encourage  young  and  vigorous  shoots, 
which  are  necessary  for  the  production  of  large  and  fine 
fruit. 

In  quality  the  fruit  of  the  best  varieties  of  this  group 
is  much  superior  to  that  of  the  Japanese  or  American 
varieties,  and  when  well  grown  sells  readily  at  good 
prices.  Many  insects  and  fungous  diseases  attack  the 
European  plums,  and  constant  attention  needs  to  be 
given  them  to  save  the  fruit  and  the  tree  from  serious 
injury. 

Insects. 

The  tree  is  attacked  by  the  peach  borer,  which  was 
described  under  the  Peach  (page  167),  and  the  plum  cur- 
culio  often  causes  all  of  the  fruit  to  fall  before  it  is  ripe. 
This  pest  attacks  the  fruit,  making  a  crescent-shaped 
cut  in  the  skin,  laying  an  egg  in  each  cut.  The  larva 
works  its  way  into  the  fruit  and  feeds  until  it  is  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  causing  the  fruit  to 
fall,  when  it  enters  the  ground  and  makes  a  cocoon  of 
soil,  from  which  it  emerges  the  'next  season.  Two 
methods  are  employed  to  destroy  this  pest:  first,  by 
spreading  a  sheet  under  the  branches  and  giving  the 
branches  a  sudden  jarring  by  striking  with  a  padded 
mallet  or  hammer,  when  the  insects  will  loose  their  hold 
and  fall  to  the  sheet.  In  the  cool  of  the  morning  they  are 
so  dormant  that  they  will  remain  on  the  sheet  until 
brushed  or  shaken  into  a  pail  or  put  into  the  stove, 
but  in  the  middle  of  the  day  they  will  often  fly  into  the 
air  after  a  few  moments  of  feigning  death.  Where  a 
large  number  of  trees  are  grown  the  sheet  is  mounted 
upon  a  frame  like  an  inverted  umbrella  on  wheels, 
which  can  be  quickly  moved  from  tree  to  tree  and  the 
insects  brushed  into  a  basin  in  the  centre  of  the  frame. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  175 

Jarring  must  be  kept  up  every  day  or  every  other  day 
for  about  two  weeks  from  the  time  the  plums  are  the 
size  of  a  small  pea. 

Another  method  which  has  proved  effectual  in  large 
orchards  is  spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
Paris  green,  as  described  for  the  codling  moth  (page  153), 
just  before  the  flowers  open,  after  the  petals  have  fallen, 
and  twice  after,  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days. 
When  all  orchard  trees  are  sprayed  as  above,  most  of 
these  insects  are  destroyed  or  driven  away.  When  all 
the  orchards  of  a  neighborhood  are  occupied  by  large 
numbers  of  poultry,  nearly  all  insects  like  the  above  are 
sure  to  be  destroyed,  but  where  only  a  few  trees  are 
enclosed  in  a  yard  the  insects  will  come  in  from  the 
outside. 

Fungous  Diseases. 

The  "black  knot,"  leaf  blight,  and  monilia  or  brown 
fruit-rot  are  three  very  troublesome  pests.  The  black 
knot  is  a  fungus  that  grows  upon  the  branches,  causing 
unsightly  black  excrescences  or  warts.  It  often  appears 
in  such  numbers  as  to  kill  entire  trees.  To  destroy  this 
pest  the  knots  should  be  cut  off  as  soon  as  they  appear, 
cutting  off  small  branches  affected  or  paring  off  the  wart 
when  on  the  trunk  or  main  branches.  Painting  the  wart 
with  thick  linseed-oil  paint  in  which  a  little  kerosene  has 
been  mixed  will  also  help  to  stop  its  progress.  On  se- 
verely infested  trees  the  whole  head  may  be  cut  off, 
leaving  only  short  stubs,  when  a  new  growth  of  shoots 
will  come  out  and  renew  the  tree.  The  spraying  recom- 
mended for  the  plum  curculio  will  reduce  the  number 
very  materially,  though  all  of  the  trees  in  a  neighbor- 
hood must  be  sprayed,  or  the  spores  of  the  fungus  will 
be  carried  from  the  unsprayed  trees  to  those  that  have 
been  sprayed. 


176  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

The  monilia  is  a  fungus  that  attacks  the  fruit  as  it 
approaches  maturity,  causing  it  to  rot,  and  when  fully 
developed  covers  the  decayed  fruit  with  light  gray  or 
white  dust-like  spores.  These  spores  are  carried  long 
distances  by  the  wind,  and  are  ready  to  grow  wherever 
the  proper  conditions  are  found — i.e.,  any  of  the  stem 
fruits  with  moisture  upon  the  surface.  Planting  the 
trees  where  they  will  have  full  exposure  to  sunlight  and 
air,  a  loose,  open  head,  and  thinning  the  fruit  so  that  no 
two  plums  will  touch  are  preventive  measures.  Spray- 
ing with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  will  in  a  measure  con- 
trol this  disease. 

The  leaf  blight  or  shot-hole  fungus  often  attacks  the 
plums,  causing  the  leaves  and  fruit  to  fall  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  consequently  a  poor  growth  of  tree  that  is 
liable  to  injury  during  the  winter. 

Varieties. 

While  long  lists  of  plums  are  given  in  catalogues  of 
nurserymen,  there  are  but  few  that  are  desirable  or 
satisfactory.  The  following  list  includes  those  that 
generally  succeed  under  a  variety  of  conditions,  viz.: 
Bradshaw,  Lombard,  Lincoln,  Arctic,  Quackenboss, 
Fellemburg,  Reine  Claude,  Washington,  Green  Gage, 
Imperial  Gage  and  Damson  (a  small  blue  plum  valuable 
for  canning). 

Marketing  Plums. 

Plums  for  the  local  market  are  sold  in  the  common 
quart  strawberry  basket,  or  by  the  half  peck  and  peck. 
For  shipping  they  are  packed  in  small  crates  or  in  the 
common  grape  basket.  It  is  a  fruit  that  keeps  but  a 
short  time,  especially  in  moist  weather,  and  should  be 
picked  when  dry  and  put  in  a  dry,  cool  place  for  keeping. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  177 

The  Japanese  Plum. 

Within  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  the  Japanese 
plum  has  been  largely  planted  and  is  a  very  desirable 
addition  to  our  list  of  fruits.  It  is  rapid  in  growth, 
comes  into  bearing  young  (from  three  to  five  years  after 
planting),  the  fruit  is  attractive  and  of  fair  quality.  It, 
however,  is  not  quite  hardy ;  the  fruit  buds  are  often 
killed  by  cold,  and  the  trees  are  short  lived.  This  is 
not  a  very  serious  objection,  as  young  trees  can  be  very 
quickly  and  cheaply  grown  to  fruiting  size  and  the  fruit 
is  better  from  young  trees  than  from  those  of  older 
growth.  It  is  propagated  by  budding  upon  the  peach 
and  plum  stocks,  the  former  being  most  generally  used. 
It  succeeds  best  upon  thin  soil  but  should  be  in  full  ex- 
posure to  sunlight  and  air.  One-year-old  trees  are  best 
for  planting,  and  are  prepared  for  setting  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  peach.  They  should  be  trained  low,  some 
varieties  requiring  frequent  heading  in  to  keep  them  in 
a  close,  compact  form. 

For  insects  and  fungous  pests  the  trees  should  be 
sprayed  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  in  full  strength 
before  the  leaves  open,  as  this  would  not  injure  them. 
After  the  leaves  have  unfolded  the  Bordeaux  must  be 
diluted  at  least  one-half  and  arsenate  of  lead  used  in 
place  of  Paris  green.  The  same  insects  and  fungous  pests 
attack  this  species  as  are  injurious  to  the  European 
plum  and  the  remedies  are  the  same  with  the  above 
modifications. 

To  obtain  fruit  of  large  size  and  good  quality  it  must 
be  thinned  before  it  is  half  grown,  all  specimens  bearing 
the  curculio's  crescent-shaped  mark  be  picked  off,  and 
no  two  plums  be  allowed  to  touch  each  other.  Varie- 
ties of  this  species  are  rapidly  increasing  and  much  im- 
provement in  quality  of  fruit  and  hardiness  of  tree  is  to 


178  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

be  hoped  for  from  some  of  the  new  introductions.  At 
the  present  time  the  varieties  that  will  give  the  best 
results  under  ordinary  average  conditions  are  probably 
the  Abundance,  Burbank,  and  Wickson,  with  Climax 
and  October  Purple  as  promising  new  varieties. 

American  Plums. 

Varieties  of  the  American  plum  may  be  found  growing 
wild  from  Canada  to  Texas.  Some  are  of  good  size  and 
fair  quality,  and  much  attention  is  being  given  to  cross- 
ing them  with  the  European  and  Japanese  varieties  in 
the  hope  of  obtaining  fruit  of  better  quality  and  larger 
size. 

Being  perfectly  hardy  and  comparatively  free  from 
insect  and  fungous  attack,  they  offer  great  promise,  and 
with  the  size  and  quality  of  the  Japanese  and  European 
varieties  would  be  more  valuable  than  either  of  the  latter. 

The  better  varieties  now  known  have  some  market 
value,  particularly  where  the  above  species  are  not 
grown,  being  especially  valuable  for  preserving,  many 
considering  them  equal  to  the  Damson  for  this  purpose; 
and  when  fully  ripe  they  are  palatable  uncooked.  The 
trees  grow  best  in  a  rather  moist  soil,  but  will  do  well  in 
almost  any  garden  soil.  Among  the  best  varieties  for 
cultivation  are  the  Wild  Goose,  Weaver,  Hawkeye,  Way- 
land,  Moreman,  and  Reed. 

The  only  insect  seriously  injurious  to  this  group  of 
plums  is  the  peach  borer  (for  description  and  remedy  see 
page  167).  The  only  fungous  pest  of  any  importance  is 
the  leaf  curl,  which  sometimes  attacks  the  fruit  as  well 
as  the  leaves,  causing  it  to  puff  up  and  soon  drop  off. 
This  pest  is  controlled  by  the  diluted  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture (4  copper  sulphate,  6  lime  and  100  gallons  of 
water) ,  and  by  the  lime  and  sulphur  wash  when  applied 
for  the  San  Jose  scale. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC. 


179 


The  Apricot. 

The  Apricot  tree  grows  vigorously  and  often  of  large 
size  from  Canada  to  Texas,  but  is  very  short  lived,  often 
dying  in  the  midst  of  the  full  summer's  growth  or  being 
frequently  killed  by  severe  winter  weather.  The  fruit 
buds  are  rather  more  tender  than  those  of  the  peach  and 
no  varieties  of  equal  quality  to  the  peach  will  grow  at 
the  North.  Varieties  of  the  European,  Russian  and  Jap- 


FIG.  63 — Currant  Bushes  Under  Plum  and  Apricot  Trees. 

anese  apricots  resemble  each  other  very  closely  but 
none  of  them  have  much  commercial  value.  The  trees 
are  budded  upon  the  peach  and  seedling  apricot  stocks, 
and  require  about  the  same  treatment  as  the  plum  in  the 
preparation  of  the  tree  for  planting  and  after  care.  The 
insect  and  fungous  pests  are  the  same  as  those  attack- 
ing the  plum,  and  require  the  same  treatment.  Among 
the  leading  European  varieties  are  the  Early  Montgamet 
and  Moore  Park.  Fig.  63  shows  apricot  and  plum 
trees  with  currant  bushes  growing  between  them. 


180  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

The  fruit  is  marketed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  plum, 
most  of  it,  however,  being  used  for  canning,  as  very  few 
kinds  mature  so  as  to  be  equal  to  the  plum  or  peach  in 
quality.  Numerous  hybrids  between  the  above  three 
species  have  been  produced,  some  of  which  are  of  much 
promise,  and  if  more  hardiness  of  tree  and  better 
quality  of  fruit  could  be  produced  would  be  a  great 
acquisition. 

The  Nectarine. 

This  fruit  may  be  called  a  smooth-skinned  peach,  for 
the  tree  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  peach  tree, 
but  there  is  no  down  or  woolly  covering  on  the  skin  of  the 
fruit  as  on  the  peach.  The  tree  is  as  hardy  as  the  peach 
tree,  but  the  fruit  buds  are  more  frequently  winter- 
killed. The  nectarine  requires  the  same  treatment  as  the 
peach  in  every  way,  but  as  the  skin  of  the  fruit  is  smooth 
more  attention  must  be  given  to  protection  from  the 
plum  curculio. 

The  Downton  and  Boston  are  among  the  best  varieties. 

THE  CHERRY. 

This  is  our  most  difficult  fruit  to  grow  in  nearly  all 
sections  of  the  country  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of 
California  and  the  Pacific  Coast. 

As  with  all  of  the  stone  fruits,  more  or  less,  the  trees 
are  easily  injured  by  severe  cold,  growing  well  for  a  few 
years  while  young  and  then  dying.  The  only  places 
where  we  find  trees  of  large  size  are  in  grass  along  the 
roadsides  or  on  the  lawns,  and  even  here  old  trees  often 
die  without  apparent  cause  in  a  single  winter. 

The  best  land  for  cherries  is  a  rather  thin,  poor  soil, 
with  quick  drainage;  but  it  must  be  made  rich  enough 
to  produce  a  good  growth,  if  not  already  in  that  condi- 
tion, by  the  application  of  stable  manure  in  the  fall 
before  the  ground  freezes. 


PEARS,  PEACHES,  QUINCES,  ETC.  181 

Little  or  no  pruning  is  needed  except  to  head  in  those 
branches  that  grow  so  as  to  give  the  trees  an  irregular 
shape.  One-  or  two-year-old  trees  are  best  for  planting, 
the  pruning  needed  before  planting  being  the  same  as 
for  the  apple  and  pear.  The  spring  is  the  best  time  for 
planting,  though  if  planted  early  in  the  fall  they  will 
succeed  fairly  well. 

Varieties. 

Two  groups  of  cherries  are  grown,  the  sour  or  cooking 
cherries  and  the  sweet  for  table  use. 

The  former  are  more  hardy  and  productive,  and  most 
easily  grown.  Of  the  sour  cherries,  the  Early  Richmond 
and  Montmorencey  are  generally  grown,  while  of  the 
sweet  kinds  the  Governor  Wood,  Black  Tartarian,  and 
Windsor  are  perhaps  the  best. 

Marketing  the  Fruit. 

Most  of  the  fruit  grown  in  the  Eastern  States  is  mar- 
keted in  quart  strawberry  baskets  packed  in  3  2 -quart  or 
bushel  crates,  though  where  grown  for  canning  they  are 
sold  in  larger  market  baskets. 

Insect  and  Fungous  Pests. 

The  insects  most  destructive  to  the  cherry  are  the 
black  aphis  or  plant  louse,  the  plum  curculio,  and  the 
peach  borer.  The  former  is  black  in  color  and  causes 
the  leaves  to  curl  up  and  often  drop  off  after  a  time. 
The  remedy  is  to  pick  off  and  destroy  the  curled  leaves 
when  they  first  appear.  The  remedy  for  the  other  two 
insect  pests  has  been  described  under  the  Plum  and 
Peach.  The  black  knot  is  destroyed  as  described  under 
the  Plum. 


CHAPTER   IX 


THE  GRAPE 


MANY  species  of  the  grape  grow  wild  from 
Canada  to  Texas,  and  it  is  more  or  less 
cultivated  in  garden  and  vineyard  through- 
out this  territory.  As  a  home  fruit,  trained  upon  the 
garden  trellis  or  upon  walls  and  the  sides  of  buildings, 
there  are  few  homes  where  the  grape  may  not  be  grown 
with  more  or  less  success;  but  for  commercial  pur- 
poses, it  is  only  extensively  cultivated  in  sections  especi- 
ally adapted  to  its  growth.  In  the  New  England 
States  we  find  only  here  and  there  vineyards  of  small 
extent,  but  as  we  go  west  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake 
Shore  vineyards  assume  large  proportions,  those  of  New 
York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  etc.,  being  the  largest  grape- 
growing  regions  in  the  world.  The  grape  is  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  and 
to  a  larger  extent  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where,  owing  to 
there  being  no  rain  during  the  ripening  season,  the  fruit 
can  be  grown  upon  self-supporting  short  trunks.  At 
the  East  varieties  or  hybrids  of  the  Fox,  Pigeon  and 
Summer  grapes  are  most  grown,  while  South  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast  the  European  variety  and  its  hybrids,  with 
many  American  species,  are  more  largely  grown. 

The  conditions  most  favorable  for  the  grape  are  a 
rather  light  soil,  well  underdrained,  in  full  exposure  to 
sunlight  and  air,  and  on  the  south  slope  of  high  hills, 
especially  at  the  North,  safe  from  late  frosts  in  the 
spring  and  early  frosts  in  the  fall;  or  on  the  borders 
of  large  sheets  of  water,  where  frosts  are  prevented  by 

182 


THE  GRAPE 

the  warm  air  arising  from  the  water.  On  the  hilltops 
of  New  England,  and  similarly  on  the  lake  shores  of 
New  York,  Ohio  and  Michigan,  frosts  do  not  generally 
do  harm  until  after  the  first  of  October,  at  which  time 
the  crop  is  usually  ripe  enough  to  pick. 

Propagation  of  the  Grape. 

The  grape  vine  is  readily  propagated  by  the  amateur, 
by  cutting,  by  layers,  and  to  some  extent  by  grafting. 

r_ „ ______  , „  ,..._ 


FIG.  64 — A  Small  Vineyard. 

Cuttings  are  short  pieces  of  canes  of  the  last  season's 
growth,  six  to  eight  inches  long,  cut  with  a  sharp  knife 
square  across  the  base  at  a  bud,  and  at  the  end  from 
one-half  to  an  inch  from  the  bud.  The  best  time  for 
making  grape  cuttings  is  in  the  fall  soon  after  the 
leaves  .have  fallen  and  up  to  the  time  the  ground  freezes, 
but  they  may  be  made  in  the  winter  when  the  canes  are 
not  frozen.  They  may  be  planted  in  the  fall  as  soon  as 
made,  or  tied  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  and  heeled  in 


184  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

with  moist  soil  closely  packed  against  all  parts.  They 
may  also  be  kept  in  moist  sawdust  upon  ice.  They  are 
planted  in  rows  any  desired  distance  apart,  the  cuttings 
being  about  two  inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  soil  pressed 
very  closely  about  the  base,  and  the  end  bud  a  half  inch 
below  the  surface. 

Layering  is  a  very  satisfactory  method  of  increasing 
the  vine.  The  spring  layer  consists  in  first  digging  a 
trench  about  six  inches  deep  close  up  under  the  vines, 
where  lateral  canes  can  be  bent  into  it.  In  this  trench 
are  placed  canes  of  last  season's  growth,  held  in  place  by 
stones  or  forked  sticks.  When  the  buds  along  this  cane 
have  grown  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  rich  soil  is 
packed  firmly  about  them,  when  roots  will  start,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  season  we  will  have  as  many  well-rooted 
vines  as  there  are  shoots  that  grew  on  the  cane  laid 
down.  Summer  layers  are  made  about  July  ist,  by 
laying  down  canes  of  the  present  season's  growth  and 
covering  with  moist  rich  soil;  at  the  end  of  the  season 
we  will  have  as  many  rooted  vines  as  were  canes  laid 
down.  Layered  vines  may  be  dug  in  the  fall  and  planted, 
or  left  until  spring,  as  may  be  most  convenient. 

In  the  vineyard,  vines  are  grown  from  six  by  eight  to 
eight  by  ten  feet  apart,  according  to  the  variety  and 
method  of  training.  The  best  vines  for  vineyard  growth 
are  strong  one-year-old  No.  i.  These  should  have  but 
one  cane,  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  and  the  roots 
shortened  to  about  six  inches.  In  planting,  the  roots 
are  spread  out  over  a  cone  or  ridge  of  soil,  or  on  the  side 
of  a  trench,  the  base  of  the  cane  being  covered  with 
only  two  or  three  inches  of  soil,  but  the  roots  running 
full  depth  into  the  soil.  Press  the  soil  firmly  about  the 
roots  and  place  a  stake  at  each  one  on  the  north  side. 
The  first  year  any  hoed  crops  like  beans,  peas,  potatoes, 
beets,  carrots,  etc.,  may  be  grown  on  the  land,  taking 


THE  GRAPE  187 

care  that  the  one  cane  allowed  to  grow  be  not  injured, 
but  corn  and  small  grains  should  not  be  grown  among 
them.  Only  one  cane  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  and 
this  should  be  kept  tied  to  the  stake,  all  laterals  being 
rubbed  off  as  soon  as  started.  At  the  end  of  the  first 
year  and  the  beginning  of  the  second,  this  cane,  if  it 
has  made  growth  enough,  is  cut  off  at  about  two  and 
one-half  feet  from  the  ground  or  on  the  level  with  the 
first  wire  or  other  support  of  the  trellis.  If  to  be  trained 


FIG.  66— Single  Grapevine  Pruned  and  Fruiting ;  Cane  Tied  to  Top  Wire. 

to  the  sides  of  a  building,  this  cane  is  encouraged  to 
grow  at  the  end  by  pinching  back  the  laterals  until  it  is 
carried  to  the  desired  height.  In  this  way  single  vines 
may  be  made  to  extend  over  long  arbors  and  verandas, 
or  over  the  sides  of  large  buildings,  serving  as  an 
ornamental  covering  and  at  the  same  time  producing 
large  crops  of  fruit.  (Fig.  65.) 

In  the  vineyard  the  vines  are  trained  to  trellises 
made  of  wire  and  posts,  one,  two  or  three  wires 
being  used,  according  to  the  method  of  training.  In  the 
very  simple  method  shown  in  the  picture  (Fig.  66)  the 
canes  bearing  the  fruit  are  trained  upon  the  upper 


]88  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

wire,  while  the  new  cane  that  is  to  bear  fruit  the  next 
season  is  trained  to  the  lower  wire.  Chestnut,  cedar,  or 
catalpa  posts  are  the  most  durable,  and  No.  12  or  No.  14 
galvanized  wire  is  used.  The  posts  are  about  eight  feet 
long,  set  three  feet  into  the  ground.  The  top  wire  is 
about  five  feet  from  the  ground,  the  second  one  being 
placed  about  eighteen  inches  below  it.  The  fruit  is  borne 
upon  the  top  wire  (Fig.  67)  while  one  or  more  new  canes 
are  grown  upon  the  lower  wire,  with  which  to  replace 


FIG.  67— A  Sincle  Vine  with  Fruit  on  the  Top  Wire. 

that  above  after  the  fruit  is  gathered.  During  the  sum- 
mer growth  of  all  canes  but  the  new  ones  is  to  be  checked 
by  pinching,  thus  forcing  all  growth  into  the  fruit  and 
the  new  canes  that  are  to  bear  fruit  next  year.  The 
ends  of  the  laterals  on  the  upper  canes  that  bear  the 
fruit  must  be  pinched  off  as  soon  as  the  last  cluster  of 
fruit  buds  appear,  which  is  often  the  last  of  May  or 
early  June,  and  whenever  new  buds  start  on  these 
laterals  all  but  one  leaf  should  be  pinched  off.  There 
are  many  other  systems  of  pruning  and  training  prac- 
ticed by  grape  growers,  but  the  above  recommends 
itself  as  simple,  requiring  but  little  work;  besides,  the 


THE  GRAPE 


189 


fruit  carried  high  upon  the  vine,  is  less  liable  to  rot 
or  mildew,  and  is  where  it  can  be  readily  thinned  and 
picked. 

Pruning  the  Vine. 

By  the  above  method  all  the  pruning  required  is  the 
cutting  off  of  the  fruiting  cane  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  removing  all  laterals  and  small  canes  near  the 


FIG.  68 — Grapevine  in  Garden  Unpruned  for  Five  Years. 

ground,  and  heading  back  the  new  canes  to  the  proper 
length  to  cover  the  trellis,  or  other  support.  Either  one 
or  two  canes  may  be  used  on  the  trellis;  if  two,  one  is 
trained  each  side  of  the  centre  of  the  vine. 

The  time  for  pruning  the  vines  may  be  from  the  fall- 
ing of  the  leaves  in  the  fall  to  the  starting  of  the  buds  in 
the  spring,  but  the  earlier  it  is  done  the  better.  If  left 
until  growth  begins,  the  sap  will  often  flow  from  the  cut 
and  possibly  injure  the  vines. 

Neglected  vines  may  be  pruned  somewhat  after  the 


190 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


above  system,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  picture 
(Fig.  68).  Beginning  at  one  end  of  the  trellis  new  canes 
are  selected  from  near  the  centre  of  the  vine,  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  cover  the  wires  or  rails,  and  all  others  are 
cut  away  until  the  vine  appears  as  shown  in  Fig.  69. 
The  vine  in  full  foliage  is  shown  in  Fig.  70. 

Vines  upon  buildings  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 


FIG.  69 — Grapevine  in  Garden  After  Pruning. 

One  new  cane  only  covers  the  space  occupied  by  the  mass 
of  unformed  canes  often  found  upon  such  vines. 

Cultivation  and  Fertilization. 

There  is  no  fruit  that  so  well  repays  good  care  and  an 
abundance  of  plant  food  as  the  grape,  but  there  is  more 
danger  of  over-feeding  than  with  any  other  fruit  crop. 
The  vineyard  should  be  kept  cultivated  enough  to  keep 
down  all  weeds,  and  in  times  of  drouth  often  enough  to 
keep  a  dust  mulch  upon  the  surface  to  retain  what 


THE  GRAPE 


191 


moisture  there  may  be  in  the  soil.  With  the  plow,  the 
spring- tooth  cultivator,  and  the  grape  horse-hoe,  little 
or  no  hand  labor  need  be  done  in  cultivation.  The 
grape  horse-hoe  enables  one  to  draw  the  soil  away  from 
the  vine  or  throw  it  up  against  it,  leaving  only  a  little 
space  around  each  vine  that  must  be  hand-hoed,  and  is 
a  great  labor  saver. 


- 


FIG.  70 — Grapevine  in  Garden  in  September,  in  Full  Foliage  and  Fruit. 

Little  or  no  nitrogenous  fertilizers  should  be  applied 
unless  the  soil  is  very  poor.  A  very  good  fertilizer  is 
made  of  equal  parts  of  fine  ground  bone  and  sulphate  of 
potash,  using  from  500  to  1000  pounds  of  this  mixture 
per  acre,  according  to  the  growth  of  vine  and  crop  of 
fruit.  For  vines  in  the  garden,  if  there  is  a  wash  of  plant 
food  from  surroundings,  or  if  fertilizers  are  applied  to 
crops  near  by,  no  fertilizers  need  be  used  upon  the 
vines.  Poultry  droppings  and  wood  ashes  make  a  good 
fertilizer  for  the  grape,  but  if  the  vines  are  growing 
vigorously  only  the  wood  ashes  should  be  used. 


192  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Varieties. 

Among  the  many  varieties  grown  there  are  but  few  of 
much  commercial  importance — none,  in  fact,  that  are 
entirely  hardy  and  free  from  disease  under  all  condi- 
tions. There  are,  however,  several  that  are  largely 
grown.  For  New  England  the  Worden,  Concord,  and 
Green  Mountain  are  the  most  hardy.  The  Delaware, 
Brighton,  and  Campbell's  Early  will  be  of  some  value 
under  favorable  conditions.  The  Delaware  is  subject  to 
mildew,  and  the  Brighton  does  not  fruit  well  unless  near 
vines  of  other  varieties  the  pollen  from  which  will  fer- 
tilize their  flowers,  which  are  not  wholly  self- fertile.  To 
the  above  may  be  added  for  New  York,  Ohio,  and  the 
Middle  West  the  Catawba,  Diamond,  Niagara,  Wilder, 
etc.,  all  of  which,  however,  are  more  subject  to  mildew 
and  rot  than  those  first  mentioned.  There  is  always  a 
great  temptation  to  try  new  varieties,  and  these  young 
vines  often  show  great  promise  when  planted  under 
favorable  conditions  and  in  new  soil,  but  when  the  vines 
are  older  and  the  soil  becomes  somewhat  exhausted 
they  develop  many  undesirable  qualities.  Therefore 
it  is  best  to  plant  largely  only  varieties  of  known  hardi- 
ness and  market  value,  and  which  are  profitable  in  one's 
own  locality. 

Marketing  the  Fruit. 

In  large  grape-growing  sections,  the  fruit  is  packed 
for  table  use  in  small  baskets  of  three  sizes  with  handles, 
weighing,  basket  and  all,  three,  five,  and  ten  pounds.  In 
this  package  they  may  be  shipped  a  long  distance  and 
delivered  to  the  consumer  in  the  original  package.  Fruit 
from  California  is  shipped  in  square  baskets,  four  or  six 
in  a  carrier,  and  in  this  way  stands  shipment  a  long  dis- 
tance. Where  the  fruit  is  largely  grown  it  is  generally 
bought  on  the  vines  by  packers,  the  purchaser  picking 


THE  GRAPE  193 

and  packing  the  fruit.  Within  a  few  years  the  manu- 
facture of  grape  juice  has  greatly  increased,  and  a  large 
share  of  the  crop  in  some  sections  goes  to  the  factory, 
where  it  is  sold  in  bulk  at  from  $25  to  $35  per  ton. 
Grapes  for  packing  sell  for  from  one  cent  to  two  cents 
per  pound  according  to  quality.  The  yield  per  acre 
under  the  best  conditions  is  from  two  to  three  tons. 

In  New  England  and  near  local  markets  grapes  are  put 
into  shallow  trays  of  16  x  24  inches,  and  three  inches 
deep.  The  grapes  are  packed,  beginning  at  one  side,  in 
two  layers  in  such  a  manner  that  no  stems  show  and  the 
grapes  with  the  bloom  untouched  present  a  very  attrac- 
tive appearance,  and  sell  at  a  high  price.  Some  growers 
in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  pack  ten  to  twelve 
pounds  in  two  layers  in  the  ordinary  diamond  market 
basket  and  sell  them  to  hotels  and  fancy  restaurants  at  a 
better  price  than  they  would  bring  packed  in  closed 
baskets. 

Girdling  the  Grape  Vine. 

In  northern  sections  where  frosts  come  early  it  is 
necessary  to  hasten  the  ripening  of  the  crop  or  it  may 
be  cut  off  before  it  is  ripe.  This  is  done  by  girdling  or 
ringing  the  vine — i.e.,  taking  out  a  ring  of  bark  from 
one-half  to  one  inch  wide  just  back  of  the  fruit,  which 
stops  the  backward  flow  of  the  elaborated  sap  to  the 
stem  and  root  back  of  the  girdle,  and  it  goes  to  the  per- 
fection of  the  leaves  and  fruit,  causing  the  latter  to 
ripen  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than  fruit  on  ungirdled 
canes.  By  this  practice  the  northern  grower  can  put  his 
grapes  into  the  local  market  as  early  or  earlier  than  his 
neighbors  of  the  Hudson  River  or  Lake  Shore  vineyards. 
It  will  also  be  fresher  and  more  attractive,  and  usually 
commands  higher  prices.  The  quality  of  the  fruit  is 
somewhat  improved  by  girdling,  it  being  more  juicy  if 
13 


194  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

not  sweeter.  It  contains  more  sugar  than  the  fruit  from 
ungirdled  vines,  but  this  is  not  apparent  to  the  taste,  as 
the  acid  is  more  soluble  than  the  sugar.  The  part  of  the 
vine  girdled  must  be  cut  entirely  away  before  the  next 
year,  as  it  would  make  a  very  slow  growth,  if  any,  and 
we  must  therefore  grow  sufficient  new  vine  back  of  the 
girdled  part  to  supply  canes  for  the  next  season's  growth. 

Insects  and  Fungous  Pests. 

There  are  many  insects  which  attack  the  grape,  the 
most  troublesome,  perhaps,  being  the  "rose  bug."  This 
pest  comes  out  of  the  ground  about  the  time  the  vine 
blossoms  and  feeds  upon  the  blossom  clusters.  It 
works  in  pairs,  a  single  one  of  which  will  often  destroy 
several  clusters  of  blossoms  in  a  few  hours.  In  large 
vineyards  they  only  work  on  the  borders,  as  they  come 
in  from  the  grass-fields  adjoining,  while  the  centres  are 
uninjured.  The  only  remedy  for  this  pest  is  to  take  a 
shallow  pail  or  pan,  and  put  in  a  little  water  with  about  a 
half  inch  of  kerosene  oil  on  top.  Hold  this  under  the 
cluster  of  insects,  touch  them,  and  they  fall  into  the  oil, 
from  which  they  never  escape.  As  these  insects  are 
coming  from  the  ground  from  day  to  day  for  about  two 
weeks,  picking  must  be  done  two  or  three  times  at  inter- 
vals of  two  days  or  until  the  petals  have  fallen  from 
the  grape  flowers,  after  which  the  pests  do  not  seem  to 
care  for  them  and  no  further  picking  is  needed.  Closer 
attention  need  be  given  to  vines  in  the  garden,  as  the 
insects  come  from  all  sides  and  where  there  are  but  a  few 
vines  a  covering  of  mosquito  netting  would  be  the  most 
effective  and  satisfactory. 

The  grape-leaf  hopper  is  a  troublesome  pest.  It  is 
much  like  the  leaf  hopper  that  attacks  rose  leaves  in  the 
early  summer,  causing  them  to  look  white  and,  if  the 
attack  is  long  continued,  to  turn  brown  and  drop  off, 


THE  GRAPE  197 

the  fruit  remaining  unripe  upon  the  vines  until  de- 
stroyed by  frost.  No  entirely  satisfactory  remedy  for 
this  pest  has  been  found,  though  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion  with  all  the  force  possible  as  soon  as  the  pest 
appears  will  check  their  depredations.  Clean  cultiva- 
tion also  helps  the  vines  to  overcome  their  injury. 

Fungous  Pests. 

Diseases  of  several  kinds  are  more  destructive  to  the 
grape  than  insects.  The  downy  and  powdery  mildew  is 
very  abundant  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  in  moist  hot 
weather,  causing  the  leaves  to  fall  off  and  the  fruit  to 
remain  unripe.  Fig.  71  shows  vines  sprayed  and  un- 
sprayed.  Varieties  like  the  Delaware,  Brighton,  Niag- 
ara, etc.,  are  much  subject  to  these  attacks.  The  black 
rot  is  a  fungus  which  attacks  the  fruit,  causing  it  to  turn 
brown  and  often  destroying  the  entire  crop.  If  the  rot 
appears  when  the  berries  are  small  they  dry  up  and  are 
black  in  color,  but  if  it  does  not  appear  until  the  fruit  is 
nearly  ripe  they  fall  off  before  turning  black.  This  pest 
and  the  mildews  are  kept  in  check  by  spraying  with  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  applying  it  just  before  the  blossom 
buds  open,  repeating  it  two  or  three  times  at  intervals 
of  a  week  or  ten  days.  If  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one- 
fourth  pound  to  fifty  gallons  of  the  mixture  is  used,  it 
will  kill  some  of  the  leaf-eating  insects  that  attack  the 
vine,  possibly  some  of  the  rose  bugs. 

Were  it  not  for  the  insects  and  fungous  pests,  and  the 
damage  by  frosts,  grape  growing  on  the  high  hills  of 
New  England  would  become  a  most  profitable  industry, 
as  by  the  process  of  girdling  above  described  the  time 
of  ripening  can  be  hastened  so  as  to  successfully  com- 
pete with  the  large  crops  of  the  West. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS 


THE  raspberry,  the  blackberry  and  the  currant 
are  almost  a  necessity  in  the  home  garden,  and 
when  properly  cared  for  are  profitable  field 
crops.  The  raspberry  and  blackberry  require  somewhat 
the  same  conditions  and  treatment.  They  will  grow 
upon  almost  any  good  garden  soil  if  it  is  well  under- 
drained,  but  to  produce  large  fruit  there  must  be  an 
abundance  of  moisture  in  the  soil  at  the  time  of 
ripening.  This  is  obtained  upon  a  thin  soil  by  plow- 
ing in  heavy  dressings  of  stable  manure  or  green 
crops,  by  mulching,  by  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil, 
or  by  irrigation.  These  are  propagated  by  suckers 
from  the  roots — i.e.,  shoots  coming  from  buds  on  the 
roots — and  by  root  cuttings.  The  latter  are  much  the 
best  to  plant,  as  they  have  much  larger  and  finer  roots. 
Root  cuttings  are  made  by  digging  up  in  the  fall  a  lot  of 
the  roots  of  the  kind  desired  and  cutting  them  into 
lengths  of  about  two  inches.  These  are  planted  before 
the  ground  freezes,  in  trenches  about  five  inches  wide 
and  two  or  three  inches  apart,  about  as  thick  as  peas 
would  be  planted,  and  covered  with  two  inches  of  rich 
soil.  Before  the  ground  freezes  the  trench  should  be 
covered  with  four  to  six  inches  of  strawy  horse  manure 
or  straw.  In  the  spring,  after  the  hard  freezing  is  over, 
the  coarse  cover  is  carefully  raked  off  and  the  surface 
raked  smooth.  During  the  summer  one  or  more  shoots 
will  grow  from  each  piece  of  root,  which  by  the  end  of  the 
season  will  be  a  foot  or  more  high  and  will  make  the  best 

198 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  199 

plants  for  fall  planting.  If  one  is  not  ready  to  plant  the 
roots  in  the  fall,  they  may  be  packed  in  moist  soil  out  of 
doors  or  in  a  cold  cellar  until  early  spring,  when  they 
must  be  planted  at  the  earliest  possible  time.  But  they 
are  not  as  certain  to  grow  as  when  planted  in  the  fall. 

Black-caps,  purple-caps,  and  dewberries  are  propa- 
gated by  the  rooting  of  the  tips  of  the  canes.  These  will 
root  by  simply  lying  on  the  ground  for  a  little  time,  but 
the  rooting  will  be  hastened  by  covering  with  a  little  soil. 
Raspberries  are  planted  in  hills  three  by  four,  or  in  rows 
five  feet  apart,  and  blackberry  plants  in  hills  four  by 
five  or  in  rows  five  or  six  feet  apart.  In  the  garden  the 
hills  and  rows  may  be  closer  than  in  the  field,  where  the 
horse  is  used  in  cultivating.  All  suckers  that  are  not 
needed  to  make  up  full  rows  or  hills  are  treated  as  weeds. 
Neither  of  these  crops  should  be  planted  in  the  fence 
corners  or  near  the  boundary  line,  as  suckers  will  be  sure 
to  spread  over  the  line.  Frequent  cultivation  must  be 
given  to  keep  down  the  weeds. 

Black-cap  and  purple-cap  raspberries  are  grown  in 
some  sections  for  market,  while  in  others  there  is  de- 
mand only  for  home  use.  The  black-cap  is  hardy  and 
productive,  but  owing  to  onslaughts  of  insects  and 
fungous  pests  a  plantation  must  be  more  frequently 
renewed  than  the  red  varieties.  The  purple-caps  are  not 
quite  hardy  and  the  color  of  the  fruit  makes  it  unsalable, 
yet  in  quality  it  is  superior  to  the  red  or  black-caps. 

Pruning  raspberries  and  blackberries  is  a  simple  proc- 
ess. The  fruiting  canes  should  be  cut  out  as  soon  as 
the  fruit  has  been  gathered,  and  all  surplus  and  weak 
canes  are  taken  out  at  the  same  time.  Some  growers 
cut  or  pinch  back  the  new  growth  to  from  two  to  three 
feet  high  to  make  them  grow  stocky  and  be  self-support- 
ing, while  others  let  the  canes  grow  full  length  and  sup- 
port them  by  wires  or  other  kinds  of  trellis.  The  work 


2OO 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


of  pruning  may  be  done  at  any  time  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  but  is  generally  left  until  growth  begins  so 
that  the  dead  wood  may  then  be  distinguished  and  cut 
away  and  the  live  wood  preserved.  Many  varieties  are 
weak  in  growth  and  require  some  support.  When 


FIG.  72 — Trellis  With  Cross  Supports  for  Raspberry  and 
Blackberry  Canes. 

planted  in  hills  a  stake  may  be  driven  in  each  hill; 
when  in  rows,  a  wire  stretched  on  both  sides  (Fig.  72) 
will  give  all  the  support  needed.  The  wires  are  first 
stretched  loosely  from  crosspieces  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  long  nailed  on  stakes  planted  at  intervals  of  ten 
to  fifteen  feet.  The  canes  are  then  drawn  inside  and 


FIG.  73— Trellis  Without  Cross  Supports. 

the  wires  drawn  up  taut  and  caught  upon  a  nail,  thus 
holding  them  in  an  upright  position.  When  the  canes 
are  not  very  thick  and  the  rows  close  together  no  cross- 
piece  need  be  used,  the  wires  being  simply  crossed  over 
the  stake  (Fig.  73).  These  wires  may  be  loosened  at 
any  time,  thrown  over  into  the  middle  of  the  row,  and 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  201 

again  brought  up  against  any  canes  that  may  have  grown 
outside  the  wire.  This  support  is  a  great  help  in  pick- 
ing the  fruit,  which  can  be  done  more  comfortably. 
No.  14  galvanized  wire  is  large  enough  for  this  purpose, 
and  if  of  good  quality,  well  galvanized,  will  last  from 
ten  to  twenty  years.  Posts  or  stakes  for  this  support 
will  last  but  six  to  eight  years.  Chestnut,  cedar,  locust 
and  catalpa  make  durable  stakes. 

Under  favorable  conditions  raspberry  and  blackberry 
plantations  will  continue  profitable  for  a  great  many 
years,  but  as  a  rule  the  greatest  profit  will  be  obtained 
if  a  new  plantation  is  made  every  six  or  eight  years. 

Insects  and  Diseases. 

Neither  the  red  raspberry  or  blackberry  is  often  se- 
riously injured  by  insects,  but  the  black-cap  is  often 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  "  cane-girdler. "  This  insect 
cuts  a  ring  around  the  new  canes  soon  after  they  start 
from  the  ground  and  lays  an  egg  below  the  cut.  When 
this  egg  hatches  the  cane  breaks  off  and  the  young 
larva  has  a  large  supply  of  food  from  the  girdled  place. 
It  continues  to  feed  downward,  often  going  into  the 
roots  and  thus  destroying  the  entire  plant.  The  rem- 
edy is  to  cut  off  the  end  of  the  girdled  cane  half  an  inch 
to  an  inch  below  the  girdling  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  wilt, 
and  burn  it. 

A  leaf  blight  attacks  the  raspberries  in  wet,  hot 
weather,  especially  when  the  plants  are  not  growing 
vigorously,  often  causing  all  but  two  or  three  of  the 
leaves  on  the  ends  of  the  canes  to  fall  before  ripening. 
The  "spring"  orange  rust  often  attacks  the  leaves  of 
some  varieties  of  the  blackberry,  developing  large 
masses  of  beautiful  orange  spores  in  the  early  summer. 
This  generally  kills  the  canes  attacked  and  when  dis- 
covered the  infested  stalks  should  be  cut  out  at  once 


2O2  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

and  burned.  The  "fall  or  summer"  orange  rust  attacks 
the  under  sides  of  the  leaves  of  some  varieties  in  mid- 
season,  causing  them  to  fall  and  the  consequent  drying 
up  of  the  fruit.  The  above  fungous  pests  are  kept  in 
check  and  prevented  from  doing  serious  harm  by  spray- 
ing with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  before  the  leaves  unfold, 
again  just  before  the  flowers  open,  and  again  as  soon 
as  the  fruit  is  picked.  If  sprayed  when  the  fruit  is 
half  grown  the  mixture  adheres  so  as  to  render  it 
unsalable. 

The  dewberry  or  running  blackberry  is  successfully 
grown  in  some  sections.  The  plants  are  set  in  rows 
three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  apart,  the  cafnes  lying  on 
the  ground  during  the  summer. 

The  horse  cultivator  is  run  the  same  way  every 
time,  so  that  the  canes  may  not  be  torn  by  the  teeth 
catching  in  them.  At  the  North,  where  the  canes  are 
liable  to  be  winter  killed,  a  light  covering  of  hay,  straw, 
or  pine  boughs  is  placed  over  them.  For  summer  growth 
and  fruiting  the  canes  are  tied  up  to  keep  the  fruit  from 
the  ground.  This  species,  being  nearly  two  weeks  earlier 
in  ripening  than  the  "high  bush"  blackberry,  brings  a 
higher  price  and  has  been  made  very  profitable. 

Varieties. 

The  following  are  the  varieties  most  generally  grown: 
Red  raspberries — Cuthbert,  Miller;  black-cap  raspber- 
ries— Cumberland,  Ohio,  Hilborn;  purple-cap  rasp- 
berries— Columbian,  Shaffer;  blackberries  (high) — Aga- 
wam,  Snyder,  Eldorado;  dewberries — Lucretia. 

THE  CURRANT. 

This  is  distinctly  a  home  fruit,  being  found  more 
or  less  in  every  garden,  but  in  many  places  it  is  grown 
extensivelv  for  market.  It  is  a  very  healthful  fruit,  its 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  203 

rich,  clear  acid  making  it  especially  palatable  during 
hot  weather.  It  is  easily  grown  but  is  often  planted 
away  in  a  neglected  corner  of  the  garden,  in  which  case 
the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  small  and  of  poor  quality.  It  is 
propagated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  grape,  shoots  of 
the  last  season's  growth  being  cut  up  into  lengths  of 
six  to  eight  inches  as  soon  in  the  fall  as  the  leaves  fall. 
When  planted  early  roots  often  form  before  winter  sets 
in  and  the  plants  make  a  large  growth  the  following 
spring.  The  cutting  bed  must  be  covered  with  hay  or 
coarse  manure  to  keep  them  from  being  heaved  out  by 
the  frost:  A  rich,  moist,  but  well-underdrained  soil  is 
necessary  for  success  with  this  fruit,  the  plants  being  set 
three  by  five  or  four  by  six  according  to  the  variety  and 
the  method  of  pruning.  Success  in  growing  large  fruit 
depends  upon  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  method  of 
pruning.  The  largest  and  best  fruit  is  borne  upon 
canes  two  and  three  years  old,  therefore  we  cut  out  all 
wood  older  than  this  and  thin  out  the  small  wood  so 
as  to  have  only  a  limited  amount  of  the  strongest  canes. 
By  this  method  of  pruning  a  large  yield  of  fruit  is 
produced  and  it  is  so  large  and  fine  that  it  sells  for  the 
highest  prices.  Thorough  cultivation  must  be  given, 
and  an  annual  dressing  of  stable  manure  or  fruit-tree 
fertilizer.  The  third  year  from  planting,  young  currant 
bushes  should  produce  a  paying  crop  of  fruit,  and  from 
this  time  on  should  yield  annual  crops  as  long  as  they 
are  well  cared  for.  In  some  soils  the  bushes  are  heaved 
out  by  frosts,  and  in  the  fall,  just  before  the  ground 
freezes  up,  the  soil  should  be  plowed  up  against  them 
or  a  heavy  covering  of  stable  manure  be  put  about 
them.  The  currant  may  be  grown  under  the  shade  of 
trees  better  than  any  other  fruit.  (Fig.  63.) 


204  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Varieties. 

Only  a  few  varieties  of  currants  are  grown,  there 
being  less  difference  in  them  than  in  the  varieties  of 
other  fruit,  the  size,  productiveness,  and  quality  being 
largely  dependent  upon  the  richness  of  the  soil,  the 
cultivation  given,  and  the  pruning.  Of  the  red  varie- 
ties, the  Fay,  Cherry,  Wilder  and  Red  Cross  are  the 
largest  and  most  productive.  Of  the  white  varieties, 
the  White  Grape  and  White  Imperial  are  among  the 
best,  the  last  named  being  of  especially  fine  quality. 

Black  or  English  currants  are  sometimes  grown  for 
home  use,  and  near  factory  villages  of  English  people 
there  is  some  demand  for  them.  The  bushes  are  hardy, 
very  productive,  and  free  from  all  insect  and  fungous 
attack.  The  fruit  of  the  yellow-flowered  currant  is  of 
some  value,  especially  the  variety  known  as  Crandall's 
Improved,  but  it  ripens  unequally  upon  the  bushes  so 
that  the  crop  cannot  all  be  picked  at  one  time.  In 
quality  this  fruit  is  superior  to  that  of  the  black  or 
English  currant. 

Insect  and  Fungous  Pests. 

The  worst  enemy  of  the  currant  bushes  is  the  currant 
worm,  known  wherever  there  are  currant  bushes.  The 
mature  insect  lays  its  eggs  on  the  mid-rib  of  the  leaves. 
The  worms  soon  hatch  out,  and  first  each  one  makes  a 
minute  hole  in  the  leaf  upon  which  the  egg  was  laid. 
They  feed  very  vigorously  and  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks 
the  leaves  will  have  been  entirely  eaten  up.  The  worm 
is  destroyed  by  hellebore  used  with  the  Bordeaux 
mixture. 

A  cane-girdler  similar  to  the  one  attacking  the  black- 
cap raspberry  lays  its  eggs  near  the  ends  of  the  new- 
growing  cane  in  June;  the  end  of  this  cane  wilts  and 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  205 

breaks  off,  when  the  larva  works  down  into  the  cane, 
often  destroying  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length.  This 
pest  is  destroyed  by  cutting  off  the  cane  a  little  below 
the  injury  as  soon  as  the  wilting  is  discovered.  A  leaf- 
blight  fungus  often  comes  upon  the  leaves  of  the  cur- 
rant before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  causing  them  to  fall  and 
leave  the  bushes  bare  for  the  rest  of  the  season,  thus 
weakening  them  so  that  the  growth  the  next  year  is 
very  poor,  and  in  some  cases  killing  the  bushes  in  a 
few  years.  This  may  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  applied  before  the  buds  open,  as 
soon  as  the  fruit  has  set,  and  again  as  soon  as  the  fruit 
has  been  gathered.  This  spraying  and  that  for  the  cur- 
rant worm  is  done  by  adding  one-fourth  pound  of  helle- 
bore to  fifty  gallons  of  the  Bordeaux. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY. 

This  is  a  desirable  fruit  for  making  jams  and  pre- 
serves, and  is  easily  grown,  but  there  is  little  demand 
for  it  in  any  but  the  very  large  markets.  It  requires  the 
same  kind  of  soil  as  the  currant  and  the  same  treatment 
as  to  cultivation,  pruning,  and  insect  and  fungous  pests. 
Gooseberry  bushes  are  most  easily  propagated  by  laying 
the  lower  branches,  stooling — i.e.,  cutting  the  bushes 
close  to  the  ground  and  allowing  numerous  shoots  to 
grow  out  at  the  stumps,  and  mounding  up  moist  soil 
about  them,  when  roots  will  form  upon  the  base  of  each 
shoot.  The  principal  difficulty  in  growing  the  goose- 
berry, especially  the  English  varieties,  is  a  mildew  that 
attacks  the  fruit  and  leaves.  This  is  remedied  in  part 
by  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  Most  of  the  American  seed- 
lings are  comparatively  free  from  this  disease. 

The  fruit  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry  is  sold  in 
quart  strawberry  baskets  packed  in  the  32-quart  crate, 
the  currants  selling  for  from  eight  to  fifteen  cents  per 


206  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

quart.  The  gooseberry  is  marketed  both  in  the  green 
and  ripe  state,  and  sells  at  about  the  same  price  as  the 
currant. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  varieties  of  the  gooseberry  to  be  recom- 
mended are:  English — Industry,  Triumph,  and  White- 
smith; American — Downing,  Pearl,  and  Red  Jacket. 

THE  STRAWBERRY. 

In  many  particulars  this  fruit  is  of  more  importance 
than  the  apple  or  the  grape.  It  can.  be  grown  on  smaller 
areas,  takes  the  shortest  time  to  produce,  and  comes 
earlier  in  the  season.  It  is  a  healthful  fruit,  and  will 
yield  more  to  the  acre  than  any  other,  large  or  small, 
having  yielded,  on  small  plots,  at  the  rate  of  over  2-0,000 
quarts  per  acre,  and  a  single  acre  has  produced  more 
than  15,000  quarts. 

The  Soil. 

The  strawberry  succeeds  best  in  a  deep,  sandy  loam 
soil,  well  supplied  with  organic  matter  from  stable  or 
clover  sod  or  other  material  turned  under  the  previous 
season.  Upon  land  in  an  ordinarily  good  condition  ten 
to  fifteen  cords  of  stable  manure  may  be  used,  or  a  good 
crop  may  be  grown  in  such  land  with  commercial  fertil- 
izers rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  from  1500  to 
2000  pounds  per  acre.  This  had  best  be  put  on  at 
three  intervals — i.e.,  500  pounds  spread  on  the  rows  at 
setting  the  plants,  500  more  in  early  July,  and  the  bal- 
ance the  last  of  August  or  early  September. 

Setting  the  Plants. 

Plants  for  setting  should  be  young  runners  with  an 
abundance  of  white  roots.  These  are  taken  from  the 
edges  of  fruiting  beds  or  from  beds  grown  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  latter  generally  being  stronger.  The  spring 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS 


207 


is  the  best  time  for  planting,  as  the  plants  are  dormant 
the  weather  is  generally  moist  and  cool,  and  roots  are 
formed  more  quickly  than  later.  They  may,  however, 
be  set  at  any  time  from  April  to  September  with  some 
degree  of  success. 

Methods  of  Planting. 

Three  methods  of  planting  are  practised,  the  hill,  the 
hedge-row,  and  the  matted-row   systems.      In  the  hill 


FIG.  74— Strawberry  Plants  in  Hills. 

system  (Fig.  74)  as  many  plants  as  it  is  desired  to  fruit 
are  planted  and  all  runners  are  kept  cut  off  as  fast  as 
they  start  until  at  the  end  of  the  season  we  have  large 
plants  (stools),  with  a  great  many  crown  buds  which 
under  favorable  conditions  will  produce  a  large  number 
of  berries  per  plant.  The  plants  are  generally  set  in 
rows  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  apart  and  eighteen 
inches  in  the  row.  By  this  method  the  labor  of  keeping 
the  runners  cut  off  is  great,  but  as  no  runners  interfere  the 


208 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


hoe  can  be  run  in  about  the  plants  and  the  bed  kept  free 
from  weeds  as  cheaply  as  if  the  plants  were  allowed  to 
make  runners.  By  the  hedge  row  (Fig.  75)  plants  are 
set  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart  and  from  two  to  three 
feet  in  the  row,  and  runners  enough  are  allowed  to  grow 
to  fill  out  a  bed  of  three  feet  with  plants  one  foot  apart. 
.With  plants  set  early  in  the  spring  these  runners  will 
make  growth  nearly  as  large  as  the  hill  plants  but  it 
takes  more  work  to  keep  the  weeds  from  among  them 


FIG.  75— Strawberry  Field.    The  Double  Hedge-Row  System. 

than  under  the  hill  system.  The  matted-row  system  is 
where  plants  are  set  at  various  distances,  according  to 
soil,  three  by  three,  four  by  four,  and  four  by  five  feet 
apart,  and  all  the  runners  allowed  to  grow,  covering  beds 
two  to  three  feet  in  width.  When  the  plants  are  set  the 
greater  distance,  and  the  runners  are  allowed  to  root  not 
nearer  than  four  or  five  inches  apart,  the  crop  of  fruit 
will  be  large  and  of  fine  quality,  but  when  all  the  runners 
grow  over  a  narrow  space,  the  plants  will  be  weak,  the 
fruit  small  and  in  wet  weather  of  poor  color  and  quality, 
and  will  decay  quickly. 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  209 

With  all  of  these  systems  it  is  best  to  keep  all  of  the 
runners  cut  off  from  the  old  plants  until  they  have 
gained  considerable  strength,  generally  up  to  the  first 
of  July,  before  the  permanent  runners  are  allowed  to 
root.  It  takes  more  work  to  keep  the  weeds  out  of  a 
matted  row  than  from  the  hills  or  hedge  rows,  as  most 
of  them  must  be  pulled  by  hand,  the  hoe  starting  the 
half-rooted  plants  as  it  is  run  in  among  them. 

Thorough  and  frequent  cultivation  must  be  given 
from  the  time  the  plants  are  set  until  the  ground  freezes 
in  the  fall,  as  many  weeds  like  grasses  and  chickweed 
grow  at  any  time  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  One  of 
the  great  advantages  of  the  hill  system  is  that  this  work 
can  be  done  with  the  horse  the  wide  way  of  the  plants, 
and  the  narrow  way  with  the  hand  wheel-hoe.  In  the 
spring  we  have  grasses,  pigweed,  shepherd's  purse,  chick- 
weed,  etc.,  to  contend  writh;  in  the  summer,  "pusley," 
barnyard  grass,  etc.,  and  in  the  fall,  shepherd's  purse,  sor- 
rel, chickweed,  etc.,  and  the  time  to  kill  them  is  when  the 
little  seedlings  are  bursting  through  the  ground.  From 
April  to  July  the  work,  except  pulling  off  the  runners, 
may  be  entirely  done  by  the  horse  with  the  cultivator 
and  weeder.  The  latter  tool  covers  six  feet  of  surface 
at  once,  and  where  the  soil  is  free  from  sticks,  grass, 
or  weeds,  the  plants  will  not  be  injured  by  it. 

Winter  Protection. 

The  strawberry  plant  is  perfectly  hardy  to  the  far 
north,  but  is  easily  injured  during  the  winter  by  freez- 
ing and  thawing  weather,  especially  in  moist  soils,  and 
must  be  covered  for  protection  from  this  danger.  Coarse 
strawy  manure,  old  hay  or  straw,  pine  needles,  pine 
boughs,  etc.,  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  covering  material  does  not  contain 
weed  seeds.  Most  growers  put  this  covering  on  after 


21O  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

the  ground  has  been  frozen  hard  enough  to  hold  up  the 
horse  and  load,  but  as  in  many  cases  there  is  a  long-con- 
tinued spell  of  freezing  and  thawing  weather  before  this 
condition  is  reached,  it  is  best  to  put  on  a  light  covering 
as  soon  as  severe  freezing  occurs  and  then  in  the  North 
add  more  covering  as  the  weather  becomes  colder.  The 
mulch  is  generally  spread  over  the  entire  surface,  but 
when  the  rows  are  wide  apart  only  the  bed  of  plants 
need  be  covered.  In  the  spring  some  growers  remove 
the  mulch  from  the  beds  and  cultivate  the  soil  until  the 
fruit  begins  to  form  and  then  return  it,  but  most  of 
them  let  it  lie  upon  the  beds,  simply  drawing  it  away 
from  the  crowns  of  the  plants  so  that  they  may  work 
out  without  injury.  On  light  land  subject  to  drouth 
the  former  practice  will  give  the  best  results,  while  in 
heavy  soils  the  moisture  dries  out  more  rapidly  if  the 
mulch  is  not  removed.  Quickly  soluble  fertilizers  are 
sometimes  applied  in  the  spring,  but  if  used  in  large 
quantities  they  tend  to  produce  a  leaf  growth  at  the 
expense  of  the  fruit.  A  dressing  of  acid  phosphate  and 
sulphate  of  potash  put  on  very  early  in  the  spring,  or 
just  as  the  fruit  is  beginning  to  form,  will  often  greatly 
increase  the  yield,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  best  to  use  the 
plant  food  in  the  summer  and  fall.  Nitrogenous  fertil- 
izers should  not  be  used  in  the  spring  when  the  fruit  is 
beginning  to  form. 

Harvesting  the  Fruit. 

One  of  the  great  trials  of  the  strawberry  grower  is 
getting  his  fruit  picked,  packed,  and  marketed.  The 
fruit  ripens  rapidly  and  must  be  picked  every  day  or 
every  other  day,  and  unfavorable  weather  often  pre- 
vents it  being  harvested  in  good  condition.  It  is  often 
difficult,  too,  to  find  help  to  pick  and  properly  pack  the 
fruit.  Women  and  children  are  generally  employed  for 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  213 

this  work  and  are  paid  by  the  box,  though  when  fancy 
berries  are  produced  that  require  especial  care  in  pick- 
ing, etc.,  men  are  sometimes  employed  (Fig.  76).  It 
is  a  very  trying  job  to  keep  a  lot  of  young  strawberry 
pickers  in  order  so  that  they  will  at  all  times  do  good 
work.  To  get  the  best  results  one  attendant  or  overseer 
is  required  in  the  field  to  look  after  twelve  to  fifteen 
pickers  and  another  to  carry  in  the  berries  and  keep 
records.  To  pack  the  fruit  for  this  number  of  pickers 
one  person  is  needed  when  the  berries  are  only  topped 
out  and  two  when  all  are  sorted.  Many  growers  make 
two  sorts,  No.  i  berries  being  sold  with  the  grower's 
stamp,  while  the  No.  2  grade  is  sold  without  the  stamp. 
As  soon  as  the  berries  are  picked  they  should  be  put  in 
a  cool,  dry  shed  or  cellar,  but  not  upon  ice  unless  they 
are  to  be  kept  a  long  time.  If  wet  when  picked  they 
should  be  placed  in  a  cool  draft  if  possible  to  dry  them 
off  before  packing  in  the  crates.  The  most  common 
package  is  the  32-quart  crate.  This  is  a  gift  package 
costing  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  each.  Southern  grow- 
ers who  ship  their  fruit  to  the  North  must  buy  new 
crates  for  each  crop,  as  the  old  ones  are  not  returned  to 
them,  but  those  at  the  North  secure  these  crates  early 
in  the  season  at  almost  a  nominal  cost  or  as  a  gift 
package,  exchanging  each  full  crate  for  an  empty  one. 

Varieties. 

The  varieties  of  the  strawberry  in  cultivation  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups — the  staminate  or  perfect 
flowered  kinds  that  have  both  stamens  and  pistils,  and 
those  that  have  pistils  only  and  will  produce  no  fruit 
unless  staminate  flowered  varieties  are  planted  beside 
them.  These  two  kinds  are  arranged  in  many  ways, 
but  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  if  a  bed  of  three  or 
four  rows  of  one  kind  is  planted  and  then  the  same 


214  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

of  the  other.  Pistillate  varieties  are  generally  more  pro- 
ductive than  those  having  stamens  and  pistils. 

Many  new  varieties  are  introduced  each  year  with 
high  recommendations,  but  very  few  of  them  prove  of 
much  value;  yet  as  old  varieties  soon  deteriorate,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  plant  new  kinds  after  a  few  years. 
There  is  now  scarcely  a  variety  in  cultivation  that  was 
grown  ten  to  fifteen  years  ago. 

There  is  great  fascination  in  testing  new  varieties, 
yet  when  we  consider  that  not  one  in  a  hundred  of  the 
new  varieties  equals  the  old  standard  sorts,  we  should 
go  slow  in  planting  largely  any  new  kind.  The  trial  of 
a  dozen  or  two  plants  of  a  kind  under  two  or  three  dif- 
ferent conditions  will  enable  one  to  determine  whether  or 
not  it  is  wise  to  plant  it  largely. 

Of  the  varieties  now  generally  grown  the  following  arc 
the  best:  Staminate  or  perfect — Clyde,  Brandy  wine, 
Senator  Dunlap,  Corsican;  pistillate  or  imperfect — 
Sample,  Haverland,  Bubach. 

Insect  and  Fungous  Pests. 

The  strawberry  is  subject  to  these  pests  but  not  to  the 
extent  that  some  other  fruits  are,  and  they  are  more 
easily  kept  under  control  than  many  others. 

The  most  destructive  insect  is  the  larva  of  the  June- 
bug  or  May-beetle.  This  insect  lays  its  eggs  in  land  where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  grass  or  other  fine  roots  for  its 
larvae  to  feed  upon,  and  if  we  turn  such  soil  over  and  set 
strawberry  plants  in  it,  the  grass  roots  being  gone  these 
larvae  feed  upon  the  strawberry  roots.  To  avoid  this 
pest,  therefore,  we  cultivate  the  land  for  one  or  two 
years  with  some  other  hoed  crop  like  corn,  potatoes, 
etc.  The  black  paria  and  strawberry-crown  borer  are 
minute  beetles  that  lay  their  eggs  close  up  to  the  crown 
of  the  strawberry  plants;  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  roots, 


THE  BUSH  FRUITS  215 

and  later,  in  the  beetle  form,  upon  the  leaves,  often  doing 
much  harm.  The  remedy  for  these  two  little  pests  is  to 
grow  only  one  crop  on  the  land  each  year,  planting  a  bed 
each  spring,  harvesting  the  crop  the  following  year,  and 
plowing  under  the  tops,  mulch  and  all,  while  the  larvae 
are  feeding  upon  the  roots.  Spraying  with  Paris  green 
and  the  Bordeaux  mixture  may  kill  many  of  them,  but 
this  is  hardly  needed  as  plowing  the  immature  larvae 
will  destroy  most  of  them. 

The  strawberry  blight  is  the  only  serious  fungous  pest 
met  with.  This  comes  upon  the  plants  at  any  time  from 
planting  to  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  when  the  weather 
is  moist  and  warm  and  the  plants  are  not  in  a  vigorous 
and  active  condition.  It  appears  as  small  reddish- 
brown  spots  upon  the  leaves  and  when  numerous  causes 
them  to  dry  up.  The  remedy  is  to  begin  with  the  young 
plants  before  they  are  set  by  dipping  them  in  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  and  spraying  once  or  twice  after  during 
the  summer.  Then  the  following  spring  spray  as  soon 
as  the  mulch  is  drawn  off,  and  again  before  the  blos- 
soms open. 

The  strawberry  crop  is  especially  the  crop  for  the 
beginner,  or  one  starting  in  business  upon  a  new  place, 
because  in  twelve  to  fifteen  months  from  planting  a  crop 
may  be  expected,  and  from  a  few  plants  we  may  in  a 
year  or  two  grow  enough  to  plant  acres,  and  at  the 
same  time  produce  fruit  for  market. 


CHAPTER   XI 


MARKET  GARDENING 


THE  home  garden  has  been  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter VI,  and  this  chapter  we  shall  devote  to 
market  gardening,  or  commercial  gardening. 

By  market  gardening  we  mean  growing  garden  crops 
in  large  areas  and  where  individuals  are  devoting  all  of 
their  energies  to  this  one  line.  Market  gardens  are  gen- 
erally located  near  large  cities  (within  five  to  ten  miles) , 
where  the  produce  can  be  taken  to  market  on  wagons; 
yet  many  are  successfully  carrying  on  the  business  at  a 
much  greater  distance  from  market,  and  shipping  their 
produce  by  express  or  freight.  There  are  advantages  in 
favor  of  both  locations.  When  near  the  markets  one 
may  be  able  to  watch  prices  from  day  to  day  and  sell  or 
hold  any  crop  as  the  market  may  warrant.  Supplies, 
too,  may  be  bought  cheaper,  and  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion both  ways  will  be  much  less.  On  the  other  hand, 
land  near  large  markets  generally  commands  a  high 
price. 

In  the  country  at  long  distances  from  markets 
land  is  cheap,  and  one  may  find  that  which  is  adapted 
to  any  crop  desired.  Rotation,  too,  may  be  practised 
on  the  larger  area  which  the  lower  prices  would  render 
available,  whereby  crops  may  be  grown  with  less  cost 
than  if  the  same  crop  were  grown  on  land  continuously 
cropped,  and  with .  the  modern  methods  of  trans- 
portation by  express  on  both  steam  and  trolley  lines 
produce  can  be  carried  at  low  rates.  Moreover  the 
modern  commercial  fertilizers  are  made  in  such  variety 

216 


MARKET  GARDENING  217 

and  to  such  perfection  that  one  is  not  wholly  dependent 
upon  stable  manure,  which  is  very  expensive,  especially 
when  hauled  a  long  distance. 

In  treating  of  the  various  market-garden  crops  in  this 
chapter,  the  limited  space  will  prevent  our  going  into 
minute  details,  therefore  only  the  most  essential  points 
will  be  touched  upon. 

The  Soil. 

For  the  most  successful  market  gardening  a  variety 
of  soils  is  a  great  advantage.  For  peas,  beans,  corn, 
squashes,  melons,  etc.,  rather  light,  warm  land  is  best, 
while  for  celery,  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  etc.,  a  deep, 
moist,  clay  loam  will  give  the  best  crops;  yet  a  deep, 
moist  loam,  facing  south,  thoroughly  underdrained,  will 
grow  almost  any  crop  if  properly  fitted  and  cultivated. 
Even  a  sandy  loam,  well  fitted  with  plant  food  and  or- 
ganic matter,  may  be  made  to  grow  any  crop  except, 
perhaps,  celery. 

Glass  Structures  Needed. 

While  one  may  grow  many  market-garden  crops  with 
profit  without  glass,  it  will  be  found  more  profitable  to 
have  a  few  hot-bed  sash  (Fig.  77)  or  a  small  green- 
house (Fig.  78)  under  which  to  start  plants  to  be  trans- 
planted early  to  the  open  ground,  and  thus  compete 
more  advantageously  with  the  Southern  growers  or 
those  more  favorably  located  near  by. 

Thus  cabbage,  lettuce,  cauliflower,  celery,  pepper,  and 
other  plants  may  be  started  under  glass  and  grown  to  a 
considerable  size,  and  when  put  out  of  doors  will  mature 
the  crop  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  if  the  seed  were 
planted  in  the  field.  The  first  cost  of  cold  frames  and 
hot-beds  is  less  than  that  of  greenhouses,  and  they  are 
much  less  expensive  to  run,  though  both  require  close  at- 
tention and  skill  to  make  them  successful  and  profitable. 


2l8 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


FIG.  77— The  Hot-Bed.    Note  Sash,  Mats, 
and  Shutters. 


For  the  making,  care,  and  management  of  cold  frames 
and  hot-beds  see  Chap.  VI,  page  117. 

Small  greenhouses  have  many  advantages  over  hot- 
beds, and  when  we  consider  the  cost  of  sash,  mats,  and 
shutters,  and  the  outlay  for  labor  to  shovel  snow,  to 

cover  and  uncover 
every  day,  or  perhaps 
several  times  each 
day,  the  cost  of  the 
former  is  but  little 
more  than  that  of  the 
latter.  Fig.  78  shows 
a  small,  cheaply  built 
1 '  lean  -  to  "  house  in 
which  large  numbers 
of  early  plants  may 
be  grown.  The  labor  of  running  a  hot- water  or  steam 
heater  is  much  less  than  the  covering  and  uncovering 
required  for  hot-beds, 
and  one  can  work  in 
such  a  house  with 
comfort  no  matter 
what  the  weather  may 
be  outside  and  have 
perfect  control  of  all 
conditions  necessary 
for  success.  Better 
and  earlier  plants  may 
be  grown  in  the  small  Fl°-  78~A  Sma11  Greenhouse, 

greenhouse  than  under  frames,  with  perhaps  the  single 
exception  of  lettuce,  but  with  this  crop  the  plants 
may  be  better  started  in  the  house  and  transplanted 
to  the  frames.  To  run  hot-beds  or  greenhouses  requires 
the  closest  attention  and  good  judgment.  One  must 
learn  by  actual  experience  the  conditions  under  which 


MARKET  GARDENING  219 

the  various  plants  are  grown,  and  one  can  hardly  expect 
to  be  successful  in  every  first  attempt.  For  directions 
for  the  care  and  management  of  greenhouses  see 
"Greenhouse  Management,"  by  Taft. 

In  the  business  of  market  gardening  one  must  begin 
planning  and  work  in  winter,  even  if  no  glass  is  used. 
Plans  must  be  fully  matured,  and  seeds,  fertilizers, 
tools,  etc.,  must  be  on  hand  for  prompt  use  the  mo- 
ment conditions  are  favorable  for  out-door  work.  Dur- 
ing the  month  of  January  we  may  decide  what  crops 
to  grow,  what  fertilizers  to  use,  what  methods  of  grow- 
ing to  pursue,  and  learn  as  far  as  possible  what  others 
are  planning  to  plant  and  what  the  market  is  likely  to 
be.  In  February  we  should  have  our  seeds  and  all 
other  supplies  on  hand  and  decide  when  and  how  we 
will  start  our  seeds,  if  under  glass  or  in  the  field,  get 
manure  on  the  land,  make  up  the  early  hot-beds,  etc. 
See  that  all  tools  are  in  working  order. 

In  March  at  the  South  and  along  the  coast,  garden 
work  is  in  various  stages  of  development,  from  almost 
full  maturity  of  crops  at  the  South  to  the  starting  of  the 
seeds  at  the  North,  fitting  the  land,  sowing  the  first  seeds 
of  onions,  peas,  radishes,  etc.,  out  of  doors.  In  April 
we  uncover  the  rhubarb,  clean  up  and  harrow  the  as- 
paragus bed,  get  in  seeds  of  the  more  important  market- 
garden  crops  promptly  and  in  rapid  succession.  As  the 
season  advances  one  crop  follows  another  as  the  first 
matures  until  the  last  planting  of  beets,  cabbages,  and 
cauliflower  in  July  and  August,  and  turnips  last  of  all. 

Fitting  the  Land. 

The  more  quickly  vegetables  are  grown  the  more  suc- 
culent and  desirable  they  are.  Therefore  the  land  must 
be  made  very  rich  to  start  with,  and  many  market  gar- 
deners start  by  applying  fifteen  to  twenty  cords  of 


22O  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

stable  manure  per  acre  and  expect  to  obtain  at  least  two 
and  sometimes  three  crops  from  the  same  land  in  a 
season,  though  often  using  a  liberal  dressing  of  com- 
mercial fertilizer  to  help  bring  on  the  last  crop.  Each 
of  the  principal  market-garden  crops  will  require  special 
treatment  of  the  details  of  which  our  space  will  allow  only 
a  brief  mention,  but  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  fol- 
lowing books:  "Vegetable  Gardening"  (Green),  "How 
to  Make  the  Garden  Pay"  (Griener),  "Success  in  Mar- 
ket Gardening"  (Rawson).  We  note  the  most  impor- 
tant points  to  be  considered  in  growing  the  following 

crops: 

ASPARAGUS. 

This  crop  succeeds  best  in  a  light  sandy  soil,  free 
from  small  stones  if  possible.  Plants  are  started  from 
seed  sown  in  the  spring  in  long  rows  or  beds  as  carrot 
or  onion  seeds  are  sown,  and  to  make  the  best  plants 
are  thinned  out  to  two  inches  apart.  They  are  in  the 
best  condition  for  planting  the  following  spring,  though 
many  prefer  to  set  plants  two  years  old. 

Planting. 

The  land  is  plowed  as  deeply  as  possible  with  a 
single  plow  or,  better,  the  subsoil  or  trench  plow  may 
follow  it,  thus  working  the  soil  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  deep.  After  thorough  harrowing  it  is  furrowed 
deeply  five  feet  apart,  the  plants  to  be  set  eighteen 
inches  in  the  row.  If  a  large  plow  is  used  and  run  two 
or  three  times  in  a  furrow  they  may  be  made  from 
eight  to  ten  inches  deep,  which  is  the  best  depth  for 
setting  the  asparagus  plants.  Manure  or  fertilizer 
may  be  used  in  the  furrow  before  the  plants  are  set, 
or  it  may  be  spread  on  broadcast  before  plowing.  The 
plants  are  set  about  eighteen  inches  apart  and  covered 
with  only  a  few  inches  of  soil  well  pressed  upon  the 
roots  with  the  -feet. 


MARKET  GARDENING  221 

When  the  plants  are  well  started  the  trench  is  gradu- 
ally filled  until,  about  the  middle  of  July,  the  land  is 
level.  To  secure  the  most  profit,  from  one-half  to  one 
ton  of  high-grade  fertilizer  or  its  equivalent  in  chemi- 
cals, or  five  to  ten  cords  of  good  stable  manure  should 
be  applied  each  spring  and  thoroughly  harrowed  in 
before  growth  begins. 

If  the  growth  has  been  large  cutting  from  the  young 
bed  may  begin  the  second  year,  but  if  small  not  until 
the  third  year,  the  first  time  of  cutting  being  only  for 
three  or  four  weeks,  increasing  the  time  until  the  old 
beds  are  cut  from  April  to  the  middle  of  June.  The 
stalks  are  cut  when  from  six  to  eight  inches  long,  with  a 
forked  knife,  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 
These  stalks  are  tied  in  small  bundles  or  bunches  of 
various  sizes  for  different  markets.  The  size  most  in 
use  is  such  that  thirty-six  bunches  standing  on  end  will 
fill  a  bushel  box  full  level  with  the  top.  In  gathering, 
all  stalks  are  cut;  the  very  small  and  imperfect  are 
dropped  to  the  ground  as  cut,  or  thrown  out  as  the 
stalks  are  bunched.  Bunching  is  done  with  an  ad- 
justed buncher  by  which  the  exact  size  is  obtained  and 
the  bunch  firmly  held  in  place  until  tied.  Tying  is  done 
with  raffia  fibre,  which  is  strong  and  flat  and  does  not 
cut  into  the  stalks  when  drawn  tightly,  as  it  must  be  to 
have  the  bunch  hold  together  as  it  is  handled  in  mar- 
keting. This  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops,  selling 
at  from  $i  to  $3  per  dozen  bunches,  according  to  the 
season  and  the  supply.  Several  varieties  are  cultivated 
but  the  kinds  most  grown  are  Connover's,  Barr's  Mam- 
moth, and  Palmetto,  there  being  little  choice  in  them 
except  that  perhaps  the  last  is  less  subject  to  rust  than 
the  others.  Fig.  86  shows  how  this  crop  and  poultry 
may  be  combined ;  during  cutting  small  chickens  may  be 
allowed  to  run  over  the  bed  and  after  cutting,  all, 


222  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

young  and  old,  may  run.  Thus  insect  pests  are 
destroyed,  the  weeds  are  killed,  the  ground  cultivated 
and  fertilized. 

BEANS. 

A  light  warm  soil  is  best  for  beans,  and  they  may  be 
sometimes  grown  as  a  second  crop,  following  any  crop 
that  is  off  the  land  by  the  ist  of  July,  though  for 
early  market  they  must  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  soil 
gets  well  warmed  up  and  the  danger  of  frost  is  past. 
It  is  a  desirable  crop  with  which  to  fit  new  land  for  a 
crop  like  melons,  strawberries,  tomatoes,  etc.  It  is 
also  a  good  crop  for  orchards,  as  it  draws  much  of  its 
nitrogen  from  the  air.  In  heavy  land  the  seed  should 
be  covered  but  lightly,  but  in  light  land  and  in  a  dry 
time  they  may  be  covered  two  or  three  times  their  own 
thickness.  The  land  should  be  cultivated  frequently, 
but  not  when  the  leaves  are  wet,  as  if  done  at  this  time 
it  is  thought  to  cause  a  blight  upon  the  leaves  and  fruit. 

Varieties. 

Nearly  every  variety  has  its  "bush"  and  "pole" 
forms,  the  former  of  which  requires  no  poles.  The  pole 
beans,  however,  generally  yield  larger  crops  than  the 
dwarf  or  bush  forms.  Beans  are  marketed  in  three 
ways,  as  "string,"  "shell,"  and  dry  beans.  The  first 
are  picked  while  the  pods  are  yet  tender ;  the  second  are 
picked  while  the  seeds  are  tender  yet  full  grown.  All 
varieties  may  be  used  as  dry  beans  for  baking,  though 
the  small,  white,  yellow-eyed,  and  red-eyed  varieties 
are  grown  especially  for  this  purpose. 

Among  the  best  varieties  for  general  use  are:  String 
beans — Dwarf  Golden  Wax,  Early  Valentine,  Early 
Six  Weeks;  Shell  beans— Pole  Horticultural,  Dwarf 
Horticultural,  Kentucky  Wonder,  Burpee's  Dwarf  Lima; 


MARKET  GARDENING  223 

Field  beans — Boston  Pea,  Marrowfat,  Red-eyed  Pea, 
Yellow-eyed  Golden-podded.  The  last  is  valuable  as  a 
string  bean  and  for  winter  use. 

BEETS. 

Beets  are  a  profitable  crop  and  easily  grown.  They 
may  be  put  into  the  market  bunched  from  the  hot-beds 
or  greenhouse,  or  early  from  the  field  from  transplants 
from  the  house  or  hot-bed.  On  rich  land  with  a  south- 
ern exposure  the  seed  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  land 
will  work  up  fine  and  mellow,  and  they  are  profitable  as  a 
late  crop  following  any  crop  that  matures  by  the  middle 
of  July.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  two  or  three 
inches  apart.  The  early  crop  is  sold  tied  in  bunches  of 
five,  and  sell  at  from  25  cents  to  50  cents  per  dozen 
bunches.  To  keep  up  a  supply  of  tender  beets  for  home 
use  or  the  market,  seed  must  be  sown  at  two  or  three 
different  times,  the  last  sowing  to  be  not  later  than 
August  i  st.  The  late  crop  should  be  harvested  before 
severe  freezing  weather,  and  to  keep  them  from  wilting 
in  a  dry  cellar  they  should  be  packed  in  slightly  moist 
soil  or  leaves.  The  late  crop  is  sold  by  the  bushel, 
bringing  from  50  cents  to  $1.00  per  bushel. 

Varieties. 

The  kinds  that  are  most  grown  are  Egyptian,  Dew- 
ing's  Improved,  Edmunds,  etc.  For  poultry  as  a  winter 
feed  the  mangel-wurzel  is  largely  grown. 

CABBAGES,  CAULIFLOWERS,  BRUSSELS  SPROUTS,  ETC. 

These  being  closely  related  may  be  treated  under  one 
heading.  With  the  cabbage  the  development  is  in  the 
form  of  an  enlarged  bud;  in  the  cauliflower  the  flower- 
stalk  is  enlarged  and  fleshy;  while  in  the  sprouts  small 


224 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


solid  buds  are  formed  in  the  axil  of  the  leaves.  They 
are  all  gross  feeders  and  all  do  well  when  planted  in 
new,  rich,  moist  soil — i.e.,  land  recently  in  turf. 

For  the  early  crop  of  cabbages  the  plants  are  started 
under  glass,  the  aim  being  to  have  large,  well-hardened 
plants  ready  to  put  out  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  severe 
freezing  is  past,  an  ordinary  frost  not  injuring  them  if 
well  hardened,  though  frequent  freezing  and  thawing 
would  do  so.  The  land  should  be  made  rich  with  stable 


FIG.  79 — Late  Cabbage,  following  Strawberries.     Blackberry  Field 
in  the  Distance. 

manure  or  fertilizer  containing  a  large  amount.of  potash. 

No  crop  is  more  benefited  by  frequent  cultivation 
than  the  cabbage  group,  and  in  the  field  they  may  be 
so  planted  that  the  horse  may  do  all  of  this  work  until 
the  leaves  cover  the  ground  and  would  be  broken  off 
by  the  cultivator. 

The  early  crop  is  grown  so  as  to  be  marketed  from 
July  to  September,  and  the  late  crop  in  October  to 
midwinter  (Fig.  79).  The  large-growing  kinds  are 


MARKET    GARDENING  225 

planted  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet,  and  the  smaller 
two  to  three  feet  apart.  In  the  local  market  they  are 
sold  by  the  piece,  but  they  are  shipped  in  barrels,  the 
weight  being  about  100  pounds  per  barrel,  and  they 
sell  for  from  50  cents  to  $1.50  per  barrel.  Cabbages 
are  wintered  in  trenches  or  in  cold  cellars.  The  trench 
is  made  in  light  soil  and  on  a  slope.  First  a  deep  fur- 
row is  plowed  at  the  top  of  the  slope  and  the  heads  on 
the  stump,  with  the  outer  leaves  pulled  off,  are  placed 
in  an  upright  position  in  this  furrow,  the  soil  being 
pressed  firmly  under  the  head.  Then  another  furrow 
is  plowed,  throwing  the  soil  up  against  the  first  row, 
and  so  on  until  all  are  "  trenched."  This  should  not 
be  done  until  freezing  weather,  and  if  the  weather  should 
be  warm  after  they  are  trenched  only  a  light  covering 
of  soil  should  be  put  over  the  head,  until  the  frost  is 
an  inch  or  two  thick.  As  'the  weather  grows  colder 
more  covering  must  be  applied,  but  it  requires  good 
judgment  to  cover  just  enough  but  not  so  much  as  to 
cause  decay.  From  this  trench  the  cabbages  may  be 
taken  out  at  any  time  during  the  winter  or  mild  days, 
and  trimmed  for  market. 

Varieties. 

For  early  market — Etampes,  Early  Jersey  Wakefield, 
Early  Summer.  For  second  early  market — Winnig- 
stadt,  all  seasons.  For  late  market — Danish  Ball 
Head,  Flat  Dutch,  Late  Drumhead,  Purple  Drumhead, 
Improved  Savoy. 

The  Cauliflower. 

The  cauliflower  requires  practically  the  same  treat- 
ment as  the   cabbage  as  to   soil    and  cultivation,  but 
needs  more  care  in  starting  the  seed  and  a  richer  soil. 
A  moist  seed-bed  of  fine  rich  soil  must  be  provided  and 
is 


226  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

the  seeds  covered  but  lightly  with  fine  soil.  If  the  bed 
is  much  exposed  to  sun  or  drying  winds,  a  sheet  of 
cheesecloth  or  burlap  should  be  stretched  over  the  bed 
during  the  dryest  part  of  the  day,  until  the  seeds  are 
well  up,  or  a  light  covering  of  fine  sphagnum  may  be 
sifted  over  them.  More  care  is  required  in  transplant- 
ing the  cauliflower  than  the  cabbage,  but  otherwise  the 
cultural  treatment  is  the  same.  When  the  heads  begin 
to  form  the  outside  leaves  are  drawn  together  and  tied 
with  a  soft  string  or  raffia  to  keep  the  heads  white. 
They  must  be  marketed  while  solid  and  are  packed  in 
bushel  or  barrel  boxes  so  as  not  to  injure  one  another, 
one  layer  only  in  a  box.  From  four  to  six  are  packed  in 
the  bushel  box  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  in  the  large  boxes. 
Cauliflower  sells  at  from  5  to  25  cents  per  head,  thus 
making  it  a  profitable  crop  where  one  has  just  the 
right  conditions  for  the  growth. 

Varieties. 

The  varieties  most  grown  are  Early  Snowball,  Dwarf 
Erfurt,  and  Le  Normand's  Short-stem. 

Brussels  Sprouts. 

Many  people  are  fond  of  these  little  "bud  cabbages," 
and  in  large  markets  they  are  in  good  demand.  They 
require  the  same  treatment  as  the  cabbage.  For  mar- 
ket they  are  picked  as  they  mature,  the  lowest  first  and 
the  others  as  they  come  to  maturity,  and  are  sold  by  the 
bushel  to  the  wholesaler,  to  be  retailed  by  the  quart  or 
half-peck. 

Varieties. 

Dreer's  Select  Matchless  and  Long  Island  Half-dwarf 
are  the  more  popular  kinds  now  cultivated. 


MARKET  GARDENING  227 

CARROTS. 

This  crop  is  grown  for  table  use  and  for  feeding  cattle 
and  horses.  It  is  one  of  those  crops  the  planting  of 
which  may  be  put  off  until  all  other  crops  are  in  the 
ground,  or  it  may  be  planted  at  the  time  of  planting 
beets,  parsnips,  and  onions;  but  the  early  sown  crop 
will  be  too  tough  and  woody  for  table  use  in  winter. 
When  sown  late  the  growth  is  largely  made  during 
September  and  October,  and  they  are  then  very  crisp  and 
tender,  just  right  for  table  use,  but  the  crop  will  not  be  as 
large  as  when  they  are  sown  early.  The  soil  best  suited  to 
the  growth  of  the  carrot  is  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  made  rich 
by  a  liberal  dressing  of  stable  manure  plowed  under  and 
a  little  fertilizer  sown  broadcast  just  before  the  sowing. 
The  seed  is  sown  in  rows  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
apart,  or  in  beds  of  three  rows  one  foot  apart  and  three 
feet  between  the  beds,  so  that  the  horse  cultivator  may 
be  run  through  them  frequently.  The  plants  are  thinned 
out  to  two  inches  apart.  The  size  most  desired  for  table 
use  is  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  which  sell  for 
50  to  75  cents  per  bushel.  For  stock  feed  they  sell  for 
from  $10  to  $15  per  ton. 

Varieties. 

The  variety  most  grown  for  stock  feed  and  table  use  is 
the  Danvers  Intermediate,  and  for  the  table  alone  Early 
Short-horn. 

CELERY. 

This  crop  is  not  generally  profitable  except  upon  deep 
moist  land  like  strong  grass  land  or  reclaimed  swamps, 
though  if  the  land  is  made  very  rich  with  a  heavy  dress- 
ing of  stable  manure  it  may  be  grown  in  a  cool  moist 
season  upon  a  deep  sandy  loam.  It  is  grown  as  a  second 
crop  following  strawberries,  potatoes,  early  beets,  or 


228  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

any  other  crop  that  is  off  the  land  before  the  first  of 
August.  It  is  often  grown  among  onions,  every  fifth 
row  among  this  crop  is  omitted  when  the  seed  is  sown 
and  later  set  with  celery  plants,  or  the  seed  is  sown  in 
the  row.  Plants  are  generally  started  in  the  green- 
house or  frames,  or  sown  in  a  sheltered  place  outside, 
about  the  first  of  April.  The  seed  is  very  fine  and 
requires  only  a  very  light  covering,  and  the  surface  of 
the  bed  must  not  become  dry  until  the  seedlings  become 
well  rooted.  This  is  prevented  by  covering  the  bed 
with  a  sheet  of  cheesecloth,  which  prevents  the  soil 
from  being  washed  when  watering,  or  by  sifting  over  the 
seed  a  thin  covering  of  fine  sphagnum  moss.  When  the 
seeds  begin  to  germinate  so  as  to  slightly  raise  the  cloth 
it  is  removed  and  the  bed  kept  shaded  for  a  day  or  two 
until  the  plants  get  well  rooted.  The  seedling  plants  are 
transplanted,  when  the  third  leaf  appears,  two  or 
three  inches  apart. 

For  early  market  the  plants  are  set  in  the  field  the 
last  of  May  or  early  June,  and  for  the  late  crop  they 
may  be  set  as  late  as  August  ist  if  the  soil  is  rich  and 
moist.  In  extremely  dry  weather,  frequent  cultivation 
must  be  given  or  water  applied.  Plants  that  are  not 
growing  as  desired  may  often  be  started  into  vigorous 
growth  by  plowing  a  furrow  away  from  each  side, 
scattering  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  or  fine  poultry  drop- 
pings into  it  and  turning  it  back  again. 

Celery  is  prepared  for  market  by  first  blanching  the 
stalks.  This  is  done  in  two  ways — by  boards  set  up 
against  each  side  of  the  rows  and  held  in  place  by 
stakes,  or  by  banking  with  soil.  The  latter  method  is 
thought  to  produce  a  better  quality,  but  is  much  more 
expensive  than  the  former. 

In  banking  with  soil,  the  plants  are  grasped  with  both 
hands  and  drawn  closely  together  while  some  fine  dirt 


MARKET  GARDENING  229 

is  packed  about  them,  holding  them  in  place  until  more 
soil  can  be  banked  against  them.  When  properly 
blanched  the  plants  are  dug  up,  the  roots  cut  off  close 
up  to  the  stalks,  the  outer  leaves  pulled  off,  and  two  or 
three  plants  tied  together  for  a  bunch.  This  is  sold  at 
from  75  cents  to  $2  per  dozen  bunches,  depending  upon 
the  quality  and  supply.  Immense  quantities  of  celery 
are  grown  on  the  reclaimed  meadows  about  Kalamazoo, 
Michigan,  and  in  other  similar  soils,  but  the  demand  is 
increasing  faster  than  the  supply. 

Celery  is  stored  in  winter  in  cold  cellars  and  in  pits. 
Any  cellar  where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  nearly 
down  to  32°  will  keep  celery  if  properly  packed.  A 
celery  "pit,"  a  cheap  structure,  is  made  partly  below 
ground  by  setting  up  posts  about  two  feet  high  upon 
which  a  roof  is  placed;  the  sides  are  double  boarded 
and  the  soil  from  the  inside  thrown  out  and  used  to 
bank  the  outside,  thus  making  the  inside  walls  three  to 
four  feet  high.  When  the  pit  is  ready  to  receive  the 
celery  the  plants  are  dug,  the  outside  leaves  pulled  off, 
and  the  plants  then  packed  closely  with  moist  soil  about 
the  roots.  Success  in  storing  celery  depends  much  upon 
the  skill  of  the  grower  in  keeping  a  low  even  tempera- 
ture. As  cold  weather  with  danger  of  freezing  comes  on 
more  covering  may  be  needed  over  the  roof  and  sides  of 
the  pit.  Thermometers  should  be  hung  inside  and  out, 
and  should  be  frequently  consulted.  At  the  North, 
celery  must  be  in  the  pit  in  average  seasons  by  Novem- 
ber 15,  but  one  must  be  ready  to  put  it  in  two  weeks 
earlier  should  cold  weather  come  on.  When  skilfully 
managed  celery  may  be  kept  in  a  pit  until  April  ist. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  leading  varieties  are  the  Golden  Self- 
blanching,  Grant  Parcal,  and  Boston  Market.  The  lat- 


230  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

ter,  while  of  the  best  quality,  is  rather  difficult  to  grow, 
as  it  is  subject  to  the  celery  leaf-blight. 

SWEET  CORN. 

Sweet  corn  is  grown  more  as  a  farm-garden  crop  than 
as  a  market-garden  crop.  Only  one  crop  can  be  grown  on 
the  land  where  corn  is  cultivated,  as  it  takes  nearly  the 
entire  season  for  it  to  grow  to  maturity.  It  makes  a  good 
crop  with  which  to  reseed  land  that  has  been  long  in 
cultivation,  or  to  break  up  coarse  land  and  fit  it  for 
market-garden  crops.  Sweet  corn  is  largely  grown  near 
canning  factories,  and  the  fodder  is  utilized  in  making 
milk.  The  early  crop  is  generally  the  most  profitable, 
and  a  warm  southern  exposure  and  a  rich  warm  soil  is 
necessary  to  produce  this.  The  land  should  be  plowed 
the  fall  before  and  again  in  the  spring  and  thoroughly 
fitted.  If  planted  very  early,  furrow  out  three  feet  each 
way,  making  the  furrows  rather  deep.  Then  at  the  in- 
tersections of  the  furrows  place  one  or  two  shovelfuls  of 
fine  heating  horse  manure.  If  this  is  very  dry  or  the  land 
is  not  decidedly  moist,  tread  it  down  and  cover  with 
two  or  three  inches  of  fine  soil  and  plant  six  to  eight 
kernels  in  each  hill.  Cover  very  lightly  if  the  soil  is  wet, 
but  an  inch  or  more  if  dry,  and  press  the  soil  firmly 
about  the  kernels. 

There  is  not  much  gained  in  very  early  planting 
unless  the  soil  is  well  warmed  by  the  sun  or  stable 
manure,  but  a  crop  may  sometimes  be  planted  as  early 
as  May  ist  at  the  North  with  the  chance  of  its  escaping 
late  frosts,  in  which  case  it  will  be  very  profitable.  A 
second  planting  should  follow  this  in  a  week,  which 
often  will  mature  nearly  as  early  as  the  first. 

Frequent  cultivation  must  be  given,  and  if  the  weeder 
is  used  several  times  after  the  cultivator  the  crop  may 
be  grown  without  the  use  of  the  hand-hoe. 


MARKET  GARDENING  231 


Varieties. 

Many  varieties  of  sweet  corn  are  found  in  the  market 
but  the  one  best  known  and  in  demand  should  be  grown. 
Among  the  best  are  the  Crosby,  Excelsior,  Country 
Gentleman,  Golden  Bantam,  and  Evergreen. 

LETTUCE. 

This  is  a  home-garden  crop,  yet  is  one  that  is  largely 
grown  for  market  the  year  around.  From  November 
to  May  at  the  North  it  comes  from  the  greenhouses  and 
frames,  or  from  the  South,  where  it  may  be  grown  out- 
side the  year  around.  To  keep  up  a  supply  of  plants 
seeds  must  be  sown  every  two  or  three  weeks. 

The  varieties  most  in  demand  are  those  that  form  a 
solid  head  like  that  of  the  cabbage,  and  to  obtain  this 
plants  must  have  a  space  of  from  six  to  eight  inches  each 
way.  They  generally  head  better  if  transplanted  once 
or  twice. 

The  crop  is  marketed  in  bushel  boxes  or  sometimes 
for  long-distance  shipment  in  barrels,  and  sells  at  from 
25  cents  per  dozen  during  the  summer  to  $i  and  $1.50 
when  the  supply  is  scarce. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  best  varieties  are  Big  Boston,  Black- 
seeded  Tennis  Ball,  Salamander,  Grand  Rapids,  and 
Hittinger. 

MELONS. 

This  crop  is  of  but  local  interest,  as  it  can  only  be 
successfully  grown  in  favored  regions.  In  almost  all 
old  settled  sections  of  the  country  it  is  a  very  uncertain 
crop  on  account  of  blight  and  the  attacks  of  insects. 
For  the  best  results  a  rather  thin  new  soil  is  needed, 
made  rich  with  manure  placed  in  the  hill,  which  should 


232  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

be  raised  a  little  above  the  level  to  carry  off  the  surface 
water  quickly.  The  seeds  should  not  be  planted  until 
the  ground  is  well  warmed,  in  this  section  not  until  the 
last  of  May  or  early  June.  If  grown  in  large  areas  the 
work  may  be  done  largely  by  the  horse  and  the  crop 
grown  at  small  cost. 

Varieties. 

The  varieties  most  grown  are:  Muskmelons — Rocky- 
ford,  Paul  Rese,  Miller's  Cream.  Watermelons— Sweet- 
heart, Kolb's  Gem,  Alabama  Sweet. 

ONIONS. 

If  one  has  deep  sandy  loam  free  from  stones,  and  not 
too  full  of  weed  seeds,  this  crop  will  be  found  profitable. 
For  the  best  results  the  land  should  be  plowed  in  the 
fall,  and  if  a  light  dressing  of  manure  be  turned  under 
it  will  insure  early  working  in  the  spring.  In  the  spring 
the  land  may  either  be  plowed  or  deeply  harrowed,  ap- 
plying any  good  vegetable  fertilizer  at  the  rate  of  from 
one-half  to  one  ton  per  acre.  The  land  must  be  worked 
fine  and  mellow,  and  if  there  is  any  coarse  material  on 
the  surface  it  should  be  raked  off  so  as  not  to  clog  the 
seed-sower.  The  seed  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  possible.  The  cultivation  required  consists 
in  running  the  wheel-  or  scuffle-hoe  so  frequently  that 
no  small  weeds  will  become  established  between  the 
rows,  and  in  hand-pulling  all  weeds  growing  in  the  rows. 
Weeds  can  be  most  cheaply  killed  when  they  are  just 
bursting  through  the  soil.  If  they  are  brought  to  the 
surface  at  this  time  with  the  hoe  or  rake,  or  covered 
with  a  little  soil,  that  is  all  that  is  needed. 

When  the  tops  begin  to  turn  yellow  they  should  be 
pulled  and  thrown  in  thin  windrows  and  frequently 
turned  until  dry. 


MARKET  GARDENING  233 

In  very  wet  weather  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
move  the  crop  to  some  dry  barn  floor,  shed  or  loft,  for 
when  new  roots  begin  to  form  on  mature  bulbs  it  is  very 
difficult  to  stop  continued  growth.  To  prepare  for  mar- 
ket the  dry  tops  are  cut  off  with  scissors  or  sharp  knives, 
the  onions  sorted,  and  put  in  sacks.  The  yield  varies 
greatly  under  different  conditions  of  soil  and  season, 
from  100  to  1000  bushels  per  acre  being  produced. 
Onions  are  not  injured  by  light  freezing  and  may  be 
kept  over  winter  in  a  cold,  dry  cellar  or  any  cold,  dry 
room  that  does  not  freeze.  They  are  also  kept  by  plac- 
ing in  a  cold  loft,  freezing  them  lightly  and  covering 
with  hay,  when  they  will  remain  frozen  or  thaw  out 
very  gradually,  but  should  not  be  handled  when  frozen. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  varieties  most  grown  are  the  Danvers  Yel- 
low Globe,  Red  Wethersfield,  Southport  White  Globe, 
Prize  Taker. 

PEAS. 

This  is  another  crop  adapted  to  the  farm  garden.  It 
is  generally  grown  on  cheap  land  and  with  commercial 
fertilizer.  The  income  from  the  crop  is  not  large,  but 
as  it  can  be  grown  cheaply  when  it  is  harvested  early 
there  is  a  good  profit  from  it  for  the  time  and  money  in- 
vested. Early,  warm  land  sloping  to  the  south,  should 
be  selected,  and  plowed  in  the  fall  and  again  in  the 
spring,  unless  it  be  turf  land,  in  which  case  the  wheel- 
harrow  run  deeply  will  suffice,  making  it  fine  and  mel- 
low as  early  as  possible.  The  seed  is  better  planted 
with  a  corn-planter  or  other  seed  drill,  as  the  plants  will 
then  be  in  better  line  and  more  easily  cultivated  with  the 
horse  or  hand  wheel-hoe.  The  fertilizer  can  be  drilled 
in  with  the  seed  with  an  attachment  to  the  seed  drill. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  break  through  the  ground  a 


234  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

cultivator  with  wings  or  a  very  small  plow  should  be 
run  between  the  rows,  throwing  a  little  soil  over  them, 
and  then  the  weeder  or  rake  run  over  all.  This  will 
kill  all  small  weeds  and  level  down  the  rows.  In  a  few 
days  or  a  week  the  weeder  should  be  run  again,  on  a 
bright  drying  day,  then  the  winged  cultivator  or  small 
plow,  throwing  fine  soil  close  up  to  the  plants.  If  after 
another  week  a  more  heavy  furrow  of  soil  be  thrown 
up  against  the  plants  all  of  the  weeds  will  be  smothered 
so  that  no  hand  work  will  be  needed  unless  it  be  to 
pull  a  few  large  weeds  in  the  rows. 

Dwarf  varieties  that  require  no  bushing  are  most 
grown,  but  the  tall  kinds  will  generally  yield  larger 
crops,  though  the  expense  of  growing  is  greater. 

Wire  poultry  netting  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  wide 
will  be  found  very  satisfactory  for  supporting  the  tall- 
growing  sorts,  and  if  taken  from  the  stakes  as  soon  as 
the  crop  is  harvested,  rolled  up  and  put  in  a  dry  place 
until  the  next  season,  it  will  last  a  lifetime.  Peas  are 
marketed  in  bushel  boxes  and  sell  for  from  50  cents  to 
$2.50  per  bushel,  according  to  season  and  supply. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  best  varieties  are:  Dwarf — Alaska,  Nott's 
Excelsior,  Surprise,  Premium  Gem,  American  Wonder. 
Tall — Champion  of  England,  Stratagem,  Telephone, 
White  Marrowfat. 

POTATOES. 

The  potato  is  properly  a  farm  crop  but  is  used  by 
market  gardeners  as  a  rotation  crop  and  to  fit  rough  land 
for  crops  that  require  a  fine  soil.  Under  the  best  con- 
ditions from  200  to  400  bushels  are  grown  upon  an  acre, 
and  when  the  work  is  largely  done  with  the  horse  as  it 
should  be  there  may  be  considerable  profit  in  the  crop. 
The  ideal  conditions  for  its  best  growth  are  a  deep, 


MARKET  GARDENING  235 

rather  moist  loam,  well  underdrained,  with  a  clover 
sod  turned  under  in  the  fall  and  shallow  plowed 
or  thoroughly  harrowed  in  the  spring.  About  ten 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  is  planted,  cut  into  pieces 
of  one  or  two  eyes,  and  the  earlier  this  is  planted 
after  the  ground  will  work  up  fine  and  mellow  the 
better,  as  there  will  be  less  trouble  from  insects,  and 
very  early  potatoes  generally  sell  higher  than  the  aver- 
age of  the  main  crop  which  comes  on  later.  For  large 
areas  the  seed  is  planted  and  fertilizers  distributed  by 
the  planter,  of  which  there  are  many  kinds  that  do  good 
work.  From  one-half  to  one  ton  of  high-grade  potato 
fertilizer  is  used  per  acre,  sowing  one  half  with  the  seed 
and  the  balance  when  the  plants  are  just  breaking 
through  the  ground,  and  at  the  first  cultivating.  At 
this  time  a  winged  cultivator  should  be  run  between 
the  rows,  covering  the  plants  and  smothering  all  small 
weeds.  In  a  day  or  two  the  weeder  may  be  run  and  the 
field  smoothed  down,  and  again  in  a  few  days  or  a  week 
the  cultivator  should  be  run  followed  by  the  weeder, 
when  another  lot  of  small  weeds  will  be  destroyed.  The 
next  cultivation  should  be  done  with  the  cultivator 
with  winged  teeth,  or  a  small  double-mouldboard  plow 
or  potato-hiller,  throwing  fine  soil  up  close  against  the 
plants.  If  the  cultivator  is  run  between  the  rows  once 
or  twice  after  this  to  keep  the  soil  fine  and  mellow,  and 
the  hiller  once  more,  this  will  take  care  of  all  the  weeds 
unless  the  land  is  very  weedy.  A  large  weed  here  and 
there  may  have  to  be  pulled  to  prevent  stocking  the 
land  with  seed  for  the  next  season. 

When  the  potato-bugs  appear  the  tops  should  be 
sprayed  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green,  to 
kill  the  bugs  and  prevent  the  blight.  A  second  and 
even  a  third  spraying  may  be  needed  if  the  weather  is 
favorable  for  the  growth  of  bugs  and  blight. 


236  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

When  the  tops  have  fallen  down  and  begin  to  turn 
yellow,  the  crop  may  be  dug  and  sold,  or  stored  if  one 
has  a  cool,  dry  place  in  which  to  put  them,  but  they 
are  as  likely  to  keep  well  in  the  ground  as  in  a  n^)ist, 
warm  cellar.  Where  there  is  a  tendency  to  decay, 
dusting  with  air-slacked  lime  or  plaster  to  take  up  the 
moisture  will  often  stop  this  tendency.  For  digging 
large  crops  the  potato-digger  will  be  found  very  eco- 
nomical, though  it  requires  a  very  heavy  team  to  draw 
it,  especially  if  the  ground  is  moist  and  heavy.  They 
should  be  dug  in  bright,  sunny  weather,  but  not  put  into 
bins  until  well  cooled  off.  Potatoes  keep  best  at  a  tem- 
perature of  40°.  A  continued  temperature  of  33°  to  35° 
often  chills  the  potato  so  that  they  become  sweet  and 
do  not  sell  as  readily  as  when  kept  at  a  higher  temper- 
ature. The  price  this  crop  sells  for  varies  from  50  cents 
to  $1.50  per  bushel,  the  average  for  New  England  being 

about  80  cents.  T,     .    . 

Varieties. 

Among  the  standard  kinds  are  the  following  in  order 
of  earliness:  Irish  Cobbler,  Bouvee,  Beauty  of  Hebron, 
Early  Ohio,  Rural  New  Yorker,  Carmans  No.  i. 

RHUBARB. 

This  is  an  early  and  often  a  profitable  crop  on  a  warm, 
rich  soil  with  a  southern  exposure,  and  one  that  may  be 
forced  by  placing  sash  over  the  beds  in  the  spring  or 
in  the  winter  by  putting  the  roots  into  a  warm  cellar — 
a  single  old  plant  will  often  make  a  dozen  new  ones. 
To  obtain  large  stalks,  roots  containing  one  or  two  buds 
(Fig.  34),  are  set  out  in  the  spring  or  early  summer 
and  kept  growing  all  summer,  and  in  the  fall  the  ground 
is  covered  with  six  to  eight  inches  of  stable  manure  to 
prevent  deep  freezing.  In  the  spring  the  coarsest  of 
this  should  be  removed  and  the  finer  spaded  in  about 
the  roots  on  a  bright,  sunny  day.  This  will  cause  an 


MARKET  GARDENING  237 

early  start   and  rapid  growth,  and  the   early   out-door 
crop  often  sells  for  from  five  to  ten  cents  per  pound. 

This  crop  may  be  forced  under  the  benches  of  a 
greenhouse  or  in  a  warm  house  or  stable  cellar.  Strong 
young  plants  of  two  to  three  buds  are  dug  just  before 
the  ground  freezes  and  with  a  little  soil  upon  them 
packed  upon  the  north  side  of  a  wall  or  shed  to  freeze. 
After  freezing  for  a  few  weeks  they  are  packed  closely 
under  the  bench,  in  the  cold  frame,  or  in  the  cellar  with 
a  little  soil  about  them,  where  they  are  to  be  forced. 
A  temperature  of  about  40°  should  be  kept  up  at  first, 
gradually  increasing  it  until  it  runs  to  about  50°  at 
night  and  60°  to  70°  during  the  day.  No  light  is 
needed,  the  stalks  being  longer  and  of  a  more  delicate 
color  in  darkness  than  in  light.  Rhubarb  is  sold  by  the 
pound,  in  some  markets,  tied  in  one,  two  and  three 
pound  bunches,  but  in  others  it  is  sold  loosely  in  bushel 

boxes. 

SQUASHES. 

Squashes,  like  melons,  require  a  great  deal  of  heat 
but  are  not  as  much  subject  to  disease  as  the  latter. 
It  is  a  sort  of  chance  crop,  for  if  planted  very  early  it  is 
often  destroyed  by  bugs  or  maggots  at  the  roots,  or  if 
planted  late  to  escape  these  pests  the  crop  is  often  cut 
off  by  frosts  or  fails  to  ripen  so  as  to  keep  well.  It  is  a 
crop  that  can  be  cheaply  grown,  and  when  it  does  escape 
the  many  chances  it  is  often  a  very  profitable  one.  For 
the  best  results  newly  turned  over  turf  land  is  generally 
selected.  It  is  deeply  plowed,  worked  very  fine  and 
mellow,  and  furrowed  in  squares  6x6  feet.  Manure  or 
fertilizer  is  placed  at  the  intersections  and  thoroughly 
worked  in,  raising  the  hill  a  few  inches  above  the  level 
that  surface  water  may  run  off  quickly.  From  five  to 
ten  seeds  are  planted  in  each  hill  from  the  ist  to  the 
loth  of  June  for  New  England,  covering  them  one- 


238  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

fourth  inch  deep  in  moist  land  and  one-half  inch  if  the 
soil  is  thin  and  dry.  As  soon  as  the  seeds  break  through 
the  ground  the  plants  should  be  dusted  thoroughly  with 
plaster  with  a  little  Paris  green  in  it  to  keep  off  the 
insects,  striped  beetles  and  black  squash-bugs.  The 
winged  cultivator  should  be  put  through  the  rows  diag- 
onally, throwing  the  soil  up  close  to  the  plants.  As  soon 
as  the  insects  are  through  working  all  weak  plants  are 
pulled  out,  leaving  three  in  each  hill.  The  second  cul- 
tivation may  be  with  the  plow  lengthwise  of  the  rows, 
throwing  more  soil  against  the  plants,  and  the  third  also 
with  the  plow,  throwing  up  more  soil.  If  the  land  is 
very  weedy  a  little  hand  hoeing  may  be  needed  just 
about  the  hills,  and  before  the  plants  get  to  running 
much  the  cultivator  should  be  run  diagonally  again, 
and  possibly  lengthwise  between,  to  kill  small  weeds 
and  keep  the  soil  well  stirred.  No  more  care  will  be 
needed  unless  it  be  to  pull  a  few  large  weeds  in  the  hills 
that  may  have  escaped  the  cultivator. 

Squashes  must  be  harvested  before  frosty  weather,  as 
even  a  temperature  just  above  freezing  may  injure  their 
keeping  qualities.  When  the  danger  of  frost  is  pro- 
nounced, a  temperature  of  45°  at  5  P.M.  and  going 
down,  squashes  are  generally  thrown  in  piles,  if  they 
cannot  be  carted  to  the  barn  or  shed,  and  covered  with 
the  vines,  and  the  following  day  carted  to  some  place 
where  they  may  lie  in  the  sun  during  the  day  and  be 
covered  at  night. 

When  the  ripening  process  in  the  sun  is  completed 
or  danger  of  freezing  is  past,  they  are  placed  in  a  dry, 
warm  shed,  loft  or  cellar.  They  will  keep  best  at  a 
temperature  of  52°  and  a  very  dry  atmosphere  in  a  dry 
shed,  squash  house,  chamber,  or  furnace  cellar. 

The  crop  is  sold  in  barrels  or  bushel  boxes,  the  price 
ranging  from  one-half  cent  to  two  cents  per  pound. 


MARKET  GARDENING  239 

Varieties. 

Among  the  best  varieties  for  market  and  home  use 
are:  Delicious,  Hubbard,  Golden  Hubbard,  Boston 
Marrow,  and  Essex. 

TOMATOES. 

This  is  a  market-garden,  a  farm-garden  and  a  can- 
ning crop.  It  is  grown  largely  to  supply  city  markets, 
and  in  some  sections  in  large  areas  to  supply  canneries. 
For  the  best  results  land  upon  which  some  well  manured 
crop  was  grown  the  previous  season  is  selected.  It  is 
plowed  in  the  fall  and  again  in  the  spring,  and  made 
ready  for  the  plants  from  May  i  to  June  i,  according  to 
location.  The  land  is  generally  furrowed  or  marked 
out  3x5  to  4x6  feet,  according  to  soil  and  variety 
grown. 

Plants  for  the  early  crop  are  grown  under  glass, 
started  from  seed  from  February  to  April  i,  and  trans- 
planted at  least  twice  until  they  occupy  a  space  6x6 
inches  in  the  bed.  When  the  plants  are  ready  for  setting 
out  a  small  amount  of  fertilizer  is  scattered  about  each 
hill,  a  spadeful  of  soil  taken  out,  the  plant  taken  up  with 
a  spade,  dropped  into  the  hole,  and  soil  pressed  firmly 
about  the  roots.  A  moist  day  should  be  selected  if 
possible  or  the  plants  set  out  from  4  to  6  P.M.,  that  they 
may  have  the  night  in  which  to  recover  from  the  effects 
of  transplanting.  For  a  few  days  before  moving  water 
should  be  withheld  from  the  plants  to  cause  them  to 
harden  and  turn  a  little  yellow,  but  the  bed  should  be 
thoroughly  wet  down  a  few  hours  before  the  plants  are 
taken  up,  to  cause  the  soil  to  adhere  to  the  roots. 
Thorough  cultivation  should  be  kept  up  both  ways 
between  the  plants  with  the  horse  as  long  as  the  plants 
stand  upright,  and  after  they  begin  to  fall  down  large 
weeds  must  be  hand  pulled. 


240  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

When  sold  to  canneries  the  crop  is  harvested  in 
bushel  boxes  and  sent  without  much  packing,  but  for 
city  markets  it  is  carefully  wiped,  sorted  and  packed 
in  layers  the  stem  end  down,  thus  presenting  a  beauti- 
ful appearance.  Prices  vary  according  to  variety  and 
season  from  50  cents  to  $2  or  more  per  bushel.  Cannery 
prices  are  made  for  the  season  and  range  from  30  cents 
to  70  cents  per  bushel. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  best  varieties  are  the  Acme,  Beauty,  Para- 
gon, New  Stone,  Dwarf  Champion,  and  Dwarf  Stone. 

TURNIPS. 

This  is  a  cheap  crop  generally  grown  on  land  cleared 
of  other  crops  late  in  the  season.  In  good  soil  the 
English  varieties  will  mature  when  the  seed  is  sown  as 
late  as  the  i5th  of  August.  It  may  be  planted  after 
beets,  peas,  early  sweet  corn,  cabbages,  strawberries, 
etc.,  and  with  little  or  no  labor  large  crops  may  be 
produced  which  are  valuable  for  stock  and  poultry 
feed,  and  to  a  limited  extent  for  table  use.  They  do 
best  when  sown  in  drills  but  good  crops  are  often 
grown  when  sown  broadcast.  Superphosphate  is  espe- 
cially valuable  for  the  crop.  The  Swede,  French  and 
Ruta  Baga  turnips  require  a  longer  season  than  the 
English  varieties.  The  seeds  must  be  sown  as  soon  as 
July  i,  more  cultivation  given,  and  the  plants  thinned 
to  four  to  six  inches  apart  in  the  drill.  The  latter  are 
grown  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  to  a  limited  extent  for 
table  use. 

Varieties. 

Among  the  best  English  varieties  are  White  Milan, 
White  Egg,  White-top  Strap-leaf,  and  Red-top  Strap- 
leaf. 


CHAPTER    XII 


POULTRY  KEEPING 


POULTRY,  fruit  growing  and  market  gardening 
is  one  of  the  best  combinations  for  earning  a 
living  on  a  small  place  in  the  country.  All 
three  require  close  and  constant  attention.  Some  one 
must  be  at  home  all  the  time  that  the  work  be  promptly 
done  when  needed,  as  a  little  neglect  at  the  critical  time 
may  result  in  great  loss  with  either. 

The  routine  work  of  fruit  growing  and  market  gar- 
dening was  discussed  in  previous  chapters  and  it  re- 
mains for  us  in  this  chapter  to  outline  the  work  of 
poultry  growing. 

The  poultry  interest  of  the  country  is  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  one  branch  of  agriculture,  the  prod- 
ucts amounting  in  a  single  year  to  over  $360,000,000. 
It  has  grown  to  this  vast  volume  in  a  comparatively 
short  time,  and  there  is  hardly  a  country  home  where 
hens,  ducks,  geese,  or  pigeons  are  not  kept.  Many 
families  produce  their  own  supply  of  eggs  and  poultry, 
others  pay  their  grocery  bills  from  the  products  of  the 
poultry  yard,  and  still  others  obtain  their  entire  sup- 
port from  their  poultry;  and  there  are  large  establish- 
ments where  thousands  of  fowls  are  kept  and  large 
capital  is  invested  in  the  equipment  of  extensive  poul- 
try houses  and  yards. 

A  noticeable  feature  of  the  country  poultry  yard  are  the 
fruit  trees  planted  in  it  for  the  shelter  of  the  fowls  and 
the  production  of  large  fruit  (Fig.  6 1), raspberries,  black- 
16  241 


242 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


berries  and  even  grapes  and  asparagus.  Poultry  houses 
and  yards  serve  as  a  good  location  for  rotation  of  crops. 
Many  yards  may  be  found  where  small  colony  houses 


FIG.  80 — Movable  Summer  Colony-House  for  Fifteen  Hens ;  Open  View. 

(Figs.  80,  81)  and  frames  are  moved  to  new  locations 
every  week,  and  where  after  a  time  the  land  covered 
by  them  is  plowed  up  and  produces  famous  yields  of 


FIG.  81 — Movable  Summer  Colony-House  for  Fifteen  Hens ;  Closed  View. 

almost  all  farm  and  garden  crops.  The  droppings, 
too,  of  the  fowls,  which  should  be  frequently  gathered 
from  under  the  roosts,  are  especially  rich  in  soluble 
nitrogen  and  other  valuable  elements,  and  are  used  in 
place  of  quick-acting  commercial  fertilizers. 


POULTRY  KEEPING  243 

The  Location. 

A  light  sandy  soil  with  a  southern  exposure  well 
sheltered  from  the  north  and  west  is  generally  selected 
for  poultry,  but  the  most  important  condition  is  a 
dry  soil  and  quick  surface  drainage.  Very  steep  hilly 
land  should  be  avoided,  as  in  heavy  showers  the  soil  is 
often  badly  washed  and  houses  and  yards  much  in- 
jured. Stony  land  and  land  covered  with  brush  may  be 
used  as  ranges,  but  if  fruit  trees  are  to  be  planted  the 


FIG.  82 — Poultry  in  the  Raspberry  Patch. 

brush  must  be  first  destroyed  by  digging  out  or  fre- 
quent cutting  and  close  feeding  by  the  fowls.  Fruit 
planted  in  poultry  yards  must  be  adapted  to  the  soil 
occupied.  Thus,  peaches  must  be  planted  on  rather 
light  soil  well  elevated,  with  somewhat  of  a  northern 
or  western  exposure.  Plums  may  be  grown  under 
similar  conditions,  doing  well  on  a  heavier  soil  if  in  full 
exposure  to  sunlight  and  air.  The  apple  and  pear  suc- 
ceed upon  any  good  grass  land,  but  it  must  be  well 
underdrained,  while  the  quince  will  grow  in  a  very  moist 
soil  or  one  like  that  suited  to  the  apple  and  pear.  Rasp- 


244  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

berries  may  be  grown  upon  almost  any  kind  of  soil  in 
the  poultry  yard  (Fig.  82),  if  not  too  wet,  but  the 
plants  must  be  allowed  to  reach  mature  growth  before 
the  fowls  are  let  in,  and  during  the  early  summer  they 
must  not  be  allowed  to  feed  on  the  new  canes  so  as  to 
injure  them.  With  the  rapid  growth  of  weeds  and 
other  plants  in  the  rich  soil  of  the  poultry  yard  this  is 
not  likely  to  happen,  unless  unusually  large  numbers  of 
fowls  are  kept  in  small  enclosures. 

The  business  of  poultry  growing  may  be  started 
from  very  small  beginnings.  A  few  settings  of  eggs 
and  some  hens  bought  in  the  spring  or  borrowed  from 
a  neighbor  may  serve  as  a  nucleus.  From  each  setting 
with  close  attention  and  care  one  may  expect  ten  to 
twelve  chicks  and  a  small  flock  may  be  almost  entirely 
supported  from  the  waste  of  the  table  and  the  products 
of  the  garden. 

One  may  start  in  this  business  in  a  more  extensive 
way  by  the  purchase  of  a  small  flock  or  the  use  of  the 
incubator.  If  one  has  a  warm,  dry  cellar  or  small  room 
where  the  temperature  runs  evenly,  and  has  the  time  to 
watch  it  closely  until  he  becomes  skilled  in  running  it, 
the  50,  100,  200  or  more  egg  incubators  will  give  a 
larger  start,  but  the  first  expense  for  incubator  and 
feed  for  the  chicks  will  be  considerable  before  any 
income  may  be  expected  from  broilers,  or  poultry.  One 
should  begin  and  proceed  in  a  moderate  way  until  all 
the  details  of  the  business  are  well  understood,  for  few 
lines  of  business  require  such  exact  knowledge  and 
prompt  treatment  as  poultry  keeping. 

POULTRY  HOUSES. 

The  first  move  in  poultry  raising  after  the  location 
has  been  decided  upon  is  the  kind  and  number  of  houses 
required.  Expensive  houses  are  not  needed  but  they 


POULTRY  KEEPING  245 

must  be  warm  in  winter,  yet  well  ventilated.  A  barn- 
or  shed-cellar  opening  to  the  south  makes  an  ideal 
place  for  small  flocks  of  fowls,  but  it  must  be  dry.  It 
may  be  kept  open  in  all  but  stormy  weather,  if  a  warm 
place  is  provided  for  the  fowls  at  night  or  in  extremely 
cold  weather.  Curtains  of  burlap  or  loosely  woven 
cloth  will  answer  the  purpose  of  glass  for  doors  or  win- 
dows in  houses  that  are  closely  built. 


FIG.  83 — A  Modern  Poultry  House  with  Scratching  Shed 
Between  Two  Pens. 

Of  special  houses  there  are  two  or  three  types  in  gen- 
eral use — the  colony  house  where  twenty  to  fifty  fowls 
are  kept  (a  very  satisfactory  colony  is  shown  in  Fig. 
83),  the  long  range  of  houses  where  the  same  num- 
ber are  kept  in  separate  pens,  and  the  large,  high  and 
well  lighted  house  where  several  hundred  are  kept 
together.  The  small  colony  house  is  most  cheaply  built 
from  the  fact  that  light  and  cheap  building  material 
may  be  used,  but  it  is  exposed  to  the  weather  oh  all 
four  sides  and  therefore  needs  the  best  possible  protec- 


246  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

tion  from  cold.  The  long  range  of  houses  with  many 
pens  joined  is  also  an  economical  house  to  build,  as  the 
pens  or  sections  are  divided  by  wire  netting  or  curtains, 
thus  reducing  the  amount  of  wall  space  for  each  pen. 
This  house  also  has  the  advantage  that  in  caring  for  the 
fowls  in  stormy  or  cold  weather  one  can  pass  from  pen 
to  pen  without  going  out  of  doors.  The  main  advan- 
tage of  the  large  house  with  a  large  number  of  fowls 
in  one  room  is  in  the  feeding  and  care,  especially  where 
the  dry  mash  system  is  practised.  Here  dry  food  may 
be  placed  in  slatted  troughs,  where  all  the  fowls  may 
help  themselves.  Enough  dry  grain  may  be  scattered 
in  the  litter  for  all  at  once,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water  be  provided.  Then  the  studs  being  high  there  is 
a  better  circulation  of  air  than  there  is  in  smaller 
buildings. 

Building  the  Houses. 

At  the  North  poultry  houses  must  be  built  so  as  to  be 
warm  in  the  coldest  weather,  yet  the  fowls  do  much 
better  if  allowed  to  run  a  part  of  each  day  in  a  dry 
cold  place  where  they  must  scratch  to  keep  warm. 
In  the  living  room  the  temperature  should  range  from 
40°  to  60°,  according  to  whether  the  sun  shines  or  not, 
but  water  should  not  freeze  much  during  the  night. 
A  warm  house  is  cheaply  obtained  by  using  lining  paper 
over  rough  boards.  Many  people  put  building  paper  on 
the  sides  of  their  hen  houses,  but  leave  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  rafters  without  the  paper,  and  when  cold 
weather  comes  on  the  cold  air  drops  down  from  these 
surfaces  and  the  houses  are  damp  and  cold.  The  soil, 
too,  close  up  to  the  houses  freezes  and  the  frost  works 
in  under  the  building  and  we  have  a  cold,  damp  floor  for 
the  fowls.  To  prevent  this  a  space  three  or  four  feet 
from  the  walls  of  the  building  must  be  covered  with 


POULTRY  KEEPING  247 

from  six  inches  to  a  foot  of  hay,  straw  or  leaves  to  keep 
frost  from  working  in  through  the  soil.  For  inside 
covering  ordinary  building  paper  or  tarred  paper  may 
be  used  and  is  comparatively  inexpensive,  but  the 
heavier  roofing  papers  like  rubberoid,  flintcoat,  amelite, 
paroid,  etc.,  are  more  economical  for  the  roofs  and  out- 
side walls.  These  if  painted  with  tar  or  asphalt  make 
very  durable  roofs.  Shingles  with  building  paper  under 
them  make  a  very  warm  and  desirable  covering  for 
either  roofs  or  sides  of  poultry  houses. 

CARE  OF  THE  FOWLS. 

Cleanliness  and  an  abundance  of  light,  fresh  air  and 
water  are  the  most  important  requirements  for  success- 
ful poultry  keeping,  but  closely  following  these  an 
abundance  and  variety  of  food  must  be  given  with  a 
good  place  for  exercise  and  a  warm  place  in  which  to 
roost  in  very  cold  weather. 

The  houses  should  be  frequently  cleaned  out,  and  the 
roosts  or  droppings  boards  be  cleaned  every  two  or  three 
days  if  a  large  number  of  fowls  are  kept.  Scattering  a 
little  dry  dust  like  sifted  coal  ashes  or  land  plaster  over 
the  droppings  will  make  this  cleaning  unnecessary  more 
frequently  than  once  or  twice  a  week  unless  the  fowls 
get  into  the  droppings  and  scratch  them  about.  The 
droppings  should  be  placed  in  barrels  and  kept  perfectly 
dry  until  sold  or  put  upon  the  land.  A  coating  of  lime 
wash  should  be  put  over  the  entire  inner  surface  of  the 
house  two  or  three  times  every  year,  adding  a  little 
dissolved  copper  sulphate  and  kerosene  to  prevent  the 
germs  of  disease  and  lice  and  mites  from  increasing.  An 
ounce  of  the  copper  sulphate  dissolved  in  hot  water 
and  a  half  pint  of  kerosene  will  be  sufficient  for  eight 
to  ten  quarts  of  wash. 


248 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


RAISING  CHICKENS. 

For  the  most  profit  in  this  work  one  must  make  a 
start  early  "in  the  season.  A  warm  house  or  open  cellar 
is  a  necessity.  Eggs  must  be  set  under  hens  or  put  into 
the  incubator  in  March  or  earlier,  and  to  produce  fertile 
eggs,  which  is  the  chief  difficulty  at  this  season  of  the 
year,  the  hens  must  have  a  great  variety  of  food  and 

„   be  allowed  to  run  outside 

whenever    the    weather   is 
favorable. 

It  is  difficult  to  find 
hens  that  want  to  set  at 
this  time,  but  with  the  in- 
cubator (Fig.  84)  one  is 
more  or  less  independent 
of  this  condition. 

If  hens  are  used,  they 
should  be  set  in  a  room  or 
space  where  other  hens 
will  not  interfere  with 
them.  A  large  number 


may  be  kept  in  one  room 


FIG.  84 — A  Model  Incubator ;  One  of 
the  Necessities  for  Profitable  Poul- 
try Raising. 

if  each  has  a  separate  box  that  may  be  kept  closed 
except  at  such  times  as  they  are  to  be  let  out  for 
water  and  feed.  An  old  strawberry  crate  makes 
a  good  box  for  the  nest.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  begin 
to  hatch  the  chicks  should  be  removed  from  each 
hen  and  taken  to  some  place  beyond  the  hearing  of 
the  other  setting  hens.  A  large  number  may  be  given 
to  the  hens  which  are  to  take  care  of  them  (twenty 
or  even  thirty  chicks  may  be  taken  care  of  by  one 
hen  if  in  a  warm  and  roomy  place),  or  the  chickens 
may  be  placed  in  brooders  (Fig.  85)  in  which  artificial 
heat  is  supplied  by  a  lamp  or  in  large  brooder  heated  by 


POULTRY  KEEPING  249 

steam  or  hot-water  pipes.  There  are  many  different 
kinds  of  small  brooders  many  of  which  are  very  satis- 
factory, or  one  may  make  a  simple  one  that  will  do  very 
satisfactory  work,  the  heat  coming  from  a  kerosene 
lamp  supplied  with  the  Trench  or  some  other  burner, 
the  flame  of  which  will  not  increase  in  size  as  the  lamp 
and  surroundings  rise  in  temperature.  A  regular,  even 
temperature  must  be  kept  up  both  in  incubator  and 
brooder. 

For  success 
with  the  incu- 
bator one  needs 
a  warm  and 
fairly  dry  cellar, 
with  an  even 
temperature, 
that  the  heat 
and  moisture  in 

FIG.  85 — A  Model  Brooder,  where  the  Chickens 
the     hatching  are  Kept  After  Being  Taken  from  Incubator. 

chamber  may  be  kept  at  the  required  point.  Success  in 
running  these  "wooden  hens"  depends  much  upon  how 
skilfully  one  can  run  the  lamp,  regulate  the  moisture, 
and  care  for  the  other  parts  of  the  machine.  This  must 
be  learned  with  each  kind  of  incubator,  many  of  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  market.  Full  directions  accom- 
pany each  machine  and  should  be  carefully  followed. 
The  one  shown  in  the  picture  is  largely  and  successfully 
in  use.  As  with  the  hen  the  chicks  should  be  removed 
from  the  incubator  as  soon  as  they  hatch  and  carefully 
protected  in  the  brooder. 

Feed  for  Chicks. 

No  food  need  be  given  the  chicks  the  first  twenty-four 
hours,  but  fresh  water  should  be  before  them  in  very 
shallow  pans  or  watering  fountains  where  they  cannot 


250  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

get  themselves  wet.  Dry  feed  should  be  given  them  for 
some  time,  some  poultry  men  even  feeding  only  dry  feed 
at  all  times.  Chick  food,  a  mixture  of  cracked  grain, 
corn,  oatmeal,  and  small  seeds',  can  be  had  at  all  supply 
stores  and  is  safe  to  use,  but  expensive;  or  a  mixture  of 
fine  cracked  corn,  oatmeal,  wheat  shorts,  etc.,  may  be 
fed.  Where  but  few  chicks  are  kept  bread  crumbs  will 
answer  very  well  for  the  first  few  days.  Fresh  and  clean 
water  should  be  before  them  at  all  times,  as  well  as  fine 
sharp  sand  or  grit,  and  milk  will  supply  the  animal  food 
needed. 

There  is  much  variation  in  the  practice  of  different 
poultry  men  as  to  feed,  some  giving  each  day  a  mash  of 
soft  food  made  of  a  mixture  of  ground  grains,  potatoes, 
scraps,  and  other  materials,  while  others  feed  only  dry 
feed.  The  latter  practice  seems  to  be  growing;  it  is  a 
safe  one  to  follow,  and  reduces  the  labor  in  caring  for 
the  flock  to  the  minimum.  Young  chicks  should  be  fed 
what  they  will  eat  up  clean  three  or  four  times  each 
day  until  they  can  run  about  vigorously,  when  three 
times  and  finally  twice  a  day,  will  be  sufficient.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  they  have  warm  and  clean  quarters, 
especially  at  night.  If  allowed  to  huddle  together,  as 
they-  are  inclined  to  do,  their  lodging  place  soon  becomes 
foul  and  unhealthy.  Early  hatched  chickens,  those 
that  come  out  in  March  and  April,  will  be  large  enough 
to  sell  as  broilers  in  June  and  July,  and  will  often  sell 
at  from  30  cents  to  50  cents  per  pound,  according  to  the 
supply  and  quality,  thus  giving  some  income  from  the 
investment  and  reducing  the  cost  of  keeping  a  large 
flock  of  rapidly  growing  fowls.  After  the  season  for 
broilers  at  good  prices  is  past,  it  is  the  best  practice  to 
separate  the  cockerels  from  the  pullets  and  fatten  them 
as  quickly  as  possible  for  poultry,  though,  when  care- 


POULTRY  KEEPING  251 

fully  fed,  poultry  of  larger  size  will  often  sell  profitably 
during  the  fall  and  early  winter. 

During  the  summer  chickens  do  best  if  allowed  full 
freedom,  and  by  growing  such  crops  as  asparagus, 
(Fig.  86),  fruit  trees  and  the  bush  fruits  only,  a  full 
range  may  be  given  by  keeping  them  in  small  colony 
houses  (Figs.  80,  81)  at  night.  They  cannot  be  given 
range  where  succulent  market-garden  crops  are  grown 
unless  these  crops  are  fenced  in. 


FIG.  86 — Poultry  in  the  Asparagus  Field. 

Among  the  fruits  mentioned  fowls  will  destroy  all 
kinds  of  insects,  will  more  or  less  cultivate  the  ground, 
and  add  much  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  If  the  colony 
houses  are  placed  on  open  land  and  are  frequently 
moved,  as  they  should  be,  areas  sufficiently  large  for 
cultivation  would  soon  be  covered,  and  very  large  crops 
of  vegetables  or  fruits  could  be  grown  on  this  in  rotation. 
If  the  colony  houses  are  large  they  should  be  built  on 
shoes  or  skids,  so  as  to  be  moved  with  horses.  In  loca- 
tions at  some  distance  from  the  main  building  a  sharp 


252  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

watch  must  be  kept  for  hawks,  crows,  owls,  skunks, 
weasels  and  stray  cats,  to  see  that  the  chickens  are  not 
taken  during  the  day  and  have  a  safe  place  at  night. 

Production  of  Eggs. 

For  the  production  of  eggs  even  more  care  is  required 
than  for  the  production  of  poultry.  In  preparing  the 
pullets  for  laying  the  cockerels  should  be  removed  from 
the  pens  except  one  to  each  twelve  to  fifteen  pullets. 
If  possible  give  them  full  range  and  feed  a  variety  of 
grains,  scraps,  and  fresh  bone,  with  an  abundance  of 
grit,  oyster  shells,  and  charcoal  where  they  can  readily 
get  at  it.  Light,  dry  and  airy  quarters  must  be  pro- 
vided and  kept  scrupulously  clean.  If  the  pullets  are 
kept  in  close  quarters  fresh  green  feed  of  some  kind, 
grass,  weeds,  cabbage,  or  other  wastes  from  the  garden 
must  be  supplied,  and  some  kind  of  litter  on  the  floor  in 
which  whole  grains  may  be  scattered. 

As  with  the  production  of  poultry,  the  practice  of 
feeding  the  dry  or  wet  mash  varies,  with  perhaps  the 
advantage  in  favor  of  the  former.  The  dry  mash  is 
made  by  mixing  ground  oats,  cornmeal,  shorts,  gluten 
meal,  and  scraps  in  equal  quantities  and  placing  this 
mixture  in  slatted  troughs  or  feeders  where  the  fowls 
can  get  at  it  at  all  times. 

The  wet  mash  is  made  of  more  or  less  of  the  above 
grains  often  using  boiled  potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  etc., 
with  the  mixture.  As  far  as  careful  comparison  of  the 
two  methods  has  been  made,  the  dry  mash  has  given 
the  best  results  especially  in  houses  inclined  to  be 
moist,  and  the  labor  is  greatly  reduced.  The  time  of 
feeding  the  wet  mash  varies,  too,  with  many,  the  most 
general  practice  being  to  feed  hot  mash  in  the  morning. 
But  the  results  of  some  careful  experiments  made  by 
experiment  stations  indicate  that  the  fowls  assimilate 


POULTRY  KEEPING  253 

more  of  the  food  when  the  hot  mash  is  fed  just  before 
they  go  upon  the  roost  at  night.  Scraps,  if  not  fed  in 
the  mash,  should  be  given  two  or  three  times  a  week  or 
be  kept  in  slatted  troughs  all  the  time,  as  should  be 
fresh  cut  bone  and  oyster  shells.  An  abundance  of  fine 
gravel,  or  grit  and  charcoal  should  also  be  supplied. 

Roosts. 

Roosts  should  not  be  placed  so  high  that  the  heavy 
birds  will  find  it  difficult  to  get  upon  them.  If  the 
roosts  are  placed  high,  there  should  be  lower  poles  upon 
which  such  fowls  can  easily  reach  the  higher.  Round 
poles  not  over  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  are 
best,  as  the  fowls  can  hold  themselves  firmly  upon 
them.  Insects  are  supposed  not  to  thrive  upon  sassa- 
fras and  sweet  birch  poles,  and  where  these  woods  are 
available  they  should  be  used,  but  any  kind  of  wood 
will  do  if  frequently  painted  over  with  kerosene  with  a 
little  linseed  oil  in  it.  The  linseed  oil  does  not  evaporate 
but  hardens  upon  the  poles,  and  when  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  insects  destroys  them  and  fills  up  the  crevices 
in  which  they  hide.  In  very  cold  houses  curtained 
roosting  places  are  often  arranged.  The  curtains  of 
burlap  may  be  thrown  up  in  the  morning  and  dropped 
at  night,  or  the  fowls  soon  learn  to  go  under  them. 

Nests. 

Nests  for  laying  hens  should  be  in  some  secluded 
place,  and  are  frequently  located  under  the  roosts. 
This,  however,  is  not  a  good  place  unless  great  care  is 
taken  to  clean  out  often  and  whitewash  with  a  mixture 
containing  kerosene.  If  a  passageway  is  made  through 
a  house,  outside  the  pens,  and  raised  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  level  of  the  floor,  nests  may  be  located  under  the 
passageway  floor  and  the  eggs  taken  out  through  small 


254  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

scuttles.  When  the  nests  are  in  some  seclusion  like  the 
above  the  fowls  are  less  liable  to  eat  their  eggs  or  break 
them  by  two  or  three  hens  getting  into  one  nest. 

BREEDS  OF  POULTRY. 

The  value  of  any  breed  depends  much  upon  the  care 
exercised  in  selecting  the  breeding  stock.  Thus  a  strain 
of  barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  or  Wyan- 
dotts,  may  be  built  up,  remarkable  for  their  laying  quali- 
ties; another  for  early  maturity  as  broilers,  while  another 
may  develop  large  size  for  poultry.  So,  too,  by  neglect 
a  great  laying  strain  may  soon  become  poor  layers  or 
slow  in  maturing.  No  breed,  perhaps,  can  combine 
all  the  desirable  qualities,  but  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  grower  to  select  for  breeding  those  fowls  that 
possess  the  most  desirable  qualities.  In  every  flock 
there  will  be  chickens  that  from  the  first  are  larger  and 
more  vigorous  than  others.  These  should  be  carefully 
removed  and  given  especial  attention,  with  the  aim  to 
produce  large  fowls.  Selection  of  fowls  for  laying  is 
more  difficult,  but  if  the  flock  is  not  too  large  we  may 
select  those  that  begin  laying  early,  and  by  trap  nests 
may  determine  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  each  one. 
When  it  is  determined  that  certain  fowls  are  more  pro- 
lific layers  than  others,  and  of  larger  size,  or  more  per- 
fectly marked,  they  should  be  marked  or  separated  so 
that  when  the  breeding  season  comes  on  their  eggs  may 
be  utilized. 

The  eggs  of  the  different  breeds  as  well  as  those  of  the 
same  breed  vary  much  in  size  and  color,  and  attention 
should  be  given  to  this  point,  for  one  market  prefers  a 
white  egg  while  in  another  the  dark  egg  is  in  demand. 
If  this  process  of  selection  is  carried  on  skilfully  for  a 
few  years  pedigree  stock  of  high  character  will  be  the 
result.  The  breeds  most  in  use  in  Eastern  United 


POULTRY  KEEPING 


255 


States  are  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandotts,  Rhode  Island 
Reds,  and  Leghorns.  The  first  are  a  good  all-purpose 
fowl,  being  good  layers,  maturing  early,  making  good 
broilers,  and  when  mature  dressing  to  weigh  from  five 
to  ten  pounds.  The  Wyandotts  and  Rhode  Island 
Reds  are  of  nearly  the  same  size  as  the  Plymouth 
Rocks,  and  may  be  equal  to  the  latter  as  layers, 
broilers  or  poultry,  but  perhaps  not  quite  so  well  fixed 


• 


FIG.  87— A  Pigeon  Loft. 

in  character.  As  egg  producers  the  Leghorns  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds  seem  to  have  the  best  reputation. 
The  Leghorns,  however,  are  small  and  perhaps  not 
quite  as  hardy.  White  fowls — White  Wyandotts,  White 
Plymouth  Rocks,  White  Leghorns,  etc.,  are  very  popular, 
but  possess  no  peculiar  merits  above  other  breeds. 

PIGEONS. 

A  branch  of  the  poultry  business  that  has  come  into 
prominence  within  a  few  years  is  pigeon  or  squab  rais- 


256  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

ing.  Our  domestic  pigeon  breeds  very  rapidly  and  from 
a  single  pair  one  may  in  a  year  or  two  produce  a  large 
flock.  They  occupy  but  a  small  space,  being  generally 
kept  in  lofts  (Fig.  87)  or  other  out-of-the-way  places, 
or  in  small  houses  like  the  colony  houses  for  hens,  with  a 
flying  yard  attached.  Close  attention  must  be  given 
them  during  their  nesting  season,  their  quarters  must  be 
kept  neat  and  clean,  fresh  food  and  water  must  be 
supplied.  The  young  birds  are  killed  for  market  about 
the  time  they  begin  to  fly  and  are  sold  undressed,  bring- 
ing from  25  to  50  cents  per  pair  while  fancy  birds  for 
breeding  purposes  sometimes  sell  for  as  many  dollars. 

For  further  details  as  to  poultry  and  its  care  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  Reports  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington  and  those  of  the  State  Ex- 
periment Stations,  notably  those  of  Maine,  Massachu- 
setts, and  Rhode  Island. 


CHAPTER   XIII 


DAIRYING,  THE  FAMILY  HORSE,  AND  BEES 

THE  country  home  is  incomplete  without  one  or 
more  cows.  An  abundance  of  milk  and  cream 
produced  by  one  good  cow  will  supply  a  large 
amount  of  the  nourishment  needed  for  the  family, 
especially  where  there  are  children  (as  there  should  be 
in  every  country  home),  and  the  cost  of  keeping  need 
be  very  slight  if  one  has  a  little  land  for  a  garden  and 
pasture,  or  upon  which  to  grow  fodder  crops.  The 
value  of  the  product  of  a  good  cow  will  vary  from  $50 
to  $100  per  year,  and  the  cost  of  keeping,  not  counting 
the  value  of  time  in  caring  for  her,  need  not  be  more 
than  from  $30  to  $50  or  $20  to  $30  besides  the  grain 
purchased.  (Fig.  88.) 

When  fed  upon  rich,  well  cured  fodder,  like  clover, 
alfalfa,  corn  fodder,  or  well  matured  ensilage,  and  good 
pasturage  in  summer,  cows  will  need  but  little  grain, 
though  a  limited  amount  may  be  profitably  fed. 

For  the  best  success  the  cow  stable  should  be  dry  and 
airy,  with  an  abundance  of  sunlight.  For  a  single  cow 
a  box  stall  will  be  more  comfortable,  but  it  will  require 
more  labor  to  keep  it  clean  than  if  the  animal  was  tied 
to  a  stanchion.  Some  sort  of  a  rack  should  be  arranged 
to  keep  the  hay  from  being  trampled  under  foot,  but  the 
bottom  of  the  crib  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  plat- 
form upon  which  the  cow  stands  so  as  to  be  easily 
cleaned  out.  Cows  may  be  kept  in  pasture  from  about 
May  10  to  October  15,  and  south  much  longer.  Where 
17  257 


258  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

the  area  of  pasture  is  small,  tying  to  a  bar  or  tethering- 
pole  will  be  found  economical. 

When  feed  is  short  in  the  pasture,  cornstalks,  cab- 
bage leaves,  small  squashes,  small  potatoes,  apples,  and 
other  wastes  from  the  garden  will  help  out  the  food 
supply,  or  small  patches  of  oats  and  rye,  fodder  corn, 
peas  and  barley,  etc.,  may  be  sown  at  intervals  of  a 
week  or  two  up  to  August  i .  The  grain  ration  required 
to  supplement  the  fodder  must  vary  with  the  quality 
of  this  food.  For  the  production  of  milk  a  mixture  of 


FIG.  88 — The  Family  Cow.    Even  the  Children  can  care  for  it. 

equal  parts  of  shorts,  gluten  meal  and  a  little  cornmeal 
or  cottonseed  makes  a  good  feed,  using  from  one  to  five 
pounds  per  day  according  to  the  richness  of  the  fodder 
used.  Fresh,  clean  and  pure  water  is  as  important  for 
the  animals  on  the  farm  as  for  the  family  in  the  house 
who  consume  their  products. 

Milking. 

With  a  gentle  cow  that  milks  easily  any  member  of 
the  family  may  do  the  milking.  Even  the  children 
from  ten  to  fifteen  years  old  may  do  much  of  this  work. 
The  process  is  very  simple  but  requires  considerable 
strength  of  the  hand  and  wrist. 


DAIRYING,  THE  HORSE,  AND  BEES  259 

Before  milking  the  udder  and  sides  of  the  cow  should 
be  brushed  and  wiped  clean  and  if  very  much  soiled  be 
washed  and  wiped  dry,  so  that  no  dirt  may  fall  into  the 
pail. 

The  pail  is  held  between  the  knees,  one  front  and  the 
opposite  rear  teat  being  grasped  by  the  right  and  left 
hand  respectively.  The  thumb  and  forefinger  are  closed 
so  that  the  milk  in  the  teat  cannot  flow  back  into  the 
bag,  and  the  milk  is  forced  out  by  the  three  lower  fingers. 
A  firm,  even  pressure  must  be  given  and  the  milk  drawn 
out  as  rapidly  as  possible,  j;he  last  drop  being  secured  if 
it  can  be  done  without  spending  too  much  time  in 
stripping. 

Keeping  the  Milk. 

As  soon  as  drawn  the  milk  should  be  removed  from 
the  stable,  carefully  strained  through  the  fine  strainer 
of  the  pail  and  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  strainer  cloth 
or  cottonwool  to  remove  all  particles  of  foreign  matter 
that  may  have  fallen  in  during  the  milking.  After  strain- 
ing, the  milk  should  be  cooled  of  the  animal  heat  as 
quickly  as  possible  in  open  pans  in  a  refrigerator,  in 
deep  cans  in  a  tank  of  ice,  or  in  cans  suspended  in  a  cold 
well. 

Breeds. 

For  ordinary  family  use  or  dairy  purposes  it  matters 
little  what  breed  is  kept,  as  good  and  profitable  animals 
may  be  found  among  all  breeds.  Those  most  largely  in 
use  for  the  production  of  cream  and  butter  are  the  Jer- 
seys and  Guernseys,  while  for  a  large  supply  of  milk  the 
Holstein  and  Ayrshires  are  much  in  favor. 

As  with  poultry,  the  value  of  any  breed  for  special 
products  depends  much  upon  the  strain,  but  perhaps  in 
a  lesser  degree,  for  the  good  qualities  are  not  so  quickly 
and  certainly  transmitted  and  controlled.  Thorough- 


260  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

bred  stock  is  much  sought  by  the  milk  and  butter  pro- 
ducer, and  while  the  average  registered  stock  is  gener- 
ally better  than  that  unregistered  there  are  many  noted 
animals  that  are  not  even  "grades"  unless  a  long  dis- 
tance away  from  that  which  is  registered. 

DAIRYING. 

Where  one  has  large  areas  of  land  in  pasture  and 
suitable  for  the  production  of  fodder  crops,  and  suitable 
buildings,  the  production  of  cream  and  milk  for  cream- 
eries or  local  or  city  markets  may  be  profitably  carried 
on.  As  with  the  single  cow,  one  must  have  light,  warm 
and  well-aired  buildings,  with  adequate  space  for  storing 
the  needed  fodder,  and  grain,  and  a  receptacle  for  the 
manure  where  the  gases  cannot  rise  into  the  space  occu- 
pied by  the  cows. 

A  cellar  opening  on  one  side  on  the  level  with  the 
surrounding  land,  well  drained  and  with  windows  on 
at  least  two  opposite  sides,  is  all  right  for  the  manure 
if  an  abundance  of  absorbents  is  used,  the  windows  kept 
open  except  in  extremely  cold  weather,  and  the  cellar 
cleaned  out  at  least  twice  each  year.  A  better  arrange- 
ment, however,  is  where  the  cattle  are  kept  in  a  shed 
separate  from  the  main  barn  where  the  fodder  is  kept, 
and  where  the  manure  can  be  carried  outside  and 
dumped  upon  a  cemented  platform,  to  be  carried  to  the 
fields  before  a  large  amount  accumulates.  If  possible 
the  foundation  gutters,  platforms,  cribs,  etc.,  should  be 
of  concrete,  so  that  they  may  be  cleaned  and  washed 
frequently  with  the  least  possible  labor. 

At  the  present  high  price  of  grain  there  can  be  but 
little  if  any  profit  in  making  milk  at  contractor's  prices 
unless  one  can  grow  cheaply  the  necessary  fodder  and 
at  least  a  part  of  the  grain.  The  hay  crop  is  very  expen- 
sive and  a  cheaper  fodder  is  found  in  the  corn  crop  put 


DAIRYING,  THE  HORSE,  AND  BEES  261 

into  the  silo.  By  planting  this  crop  in  rich,  warm  soil 
early  in  the  season,  the  ears  of  even  some  late  varieties 
will  mature  and  if  cut  up  when  the  kernels  are  well 
glazed,  and  put  into  the  silo,  a  rich  food  is  produced 
that  is  much  better  than  the  ordinary  green  fodder  that 
is  generally  put  into  the  silos  and  requires  but  little 
grain  to  supplement  it.  Matured  corn  may  be  grown 
upon  good  corn  land,  at  a  considerable  profit,  if  the  work 
is  done  cheaply  with  the  corn-planter,  weeder,  and  cul- 
tivator. At  least  $10  to  $15  per  acre  net  profit  may  be 
realized  after  paying  all  cost  of  labor,  fertilizers,  seed, 
etc.,  and  our  Eastern  farmers  should  grow  more  of  the 
grain  they  consume  and  thus  keep  their  money  at  home. 
"A  penny  saved  in  this  way  is  twice  earned." 

The  Tie-up. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  tie-up  for  cows  and  each  has 
its  ardent  supporters.  The  chain  tie  sliding  up  and 
down  upon  a  stanchion  post  is  perhaps  most  generally 
in  use.  It  is  inexpensive  and  allows  much  freedom  to 
the  animal,  but  each  dairyman  should  adopt  the  one 
best  suited  to  his  stable. 

The  Milk  Supply. 

One  of  the  great  problems  in  producing  milk  for 
large  contractors  or  for  the  milk-route,  is  to  keep  up  a 
regular  supply  during  the  changing  seasons  of  the  year. 
Thus,  for  the  family  supply  two  cows  must  be  kept,  one 
to  come  in  in  the  fall  and  another  to  give  milk  while 
this  one  is  dry.  Or  one  must  sell  when  the  milk  supply 
becomes  short  and  buy  a  fresh  one.  With  large  dairies 
frequent  changes  must  be  made,  or  surplus  cows  be 
kept,  to  maintain  this  supply.  There  are  always  good 
cows  to  be  found  in  the  market  and  one  who  is  skilled  in 
the  points  of  a  good  cow  may  keep  up  the  supply  by 


262  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

buying  and  selling,  but  it  will  be  safer  for  the  amateur 
to  keep  good  cows  over,  having  several  surplus  ones  on 
hand,  and  raise  the  young  females  of  those  which  have 
proved  the  most  valuable. 

Keeping  Up  the  Standard. 

The  modern  milk  market  demands  milk  of  a  certain 
standard  as  to  quality,  solids,  and  freedom  from  bac- 
teria, unpleasant  taste,  and  odors. 

The  percentage  of  solids  in  milk  of  different  animals 
varies  much,  and  it  is  conceded  that  this  percentage 
cannot  be  materially  changed  by  the  food  given;  there- 
fore if  one  is  making  milk  below  the  standard  he  must 
add  to  his  herd  cows  that  produce  a  higher  standard  of 
milk.  This  necessitates  the  testing  of  the  milk  of  all  of 
the  members  of  a  herd  in  order  to  know  which  are  giv- 
ing poor  milk,  which  is  done  at  little  or  no  expense 
by  the  experiment  stations  and  most  of  the  milk 
contractors. 

Standard  of  Purity. 

The  boards  of  health  of  States  and  large  cities  are 
demanding  milk  for  the  people  free  from  unhealthful  or 
undesirable  foreign  matter — i.e.,  free  from  foul  odors, 
and  the  various  bacteria  or  germs  of  disease  and  decay. 
To  secure  this  careful  inspection  is  made  by  the  boards  of 
health  and  by  the  contractors,  thus  necessitating  greater 
cleanliness  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  dairyman  in  the 
production  and  care  of  his  milk. 

The  greatest  profit  is  made  by  milk  producers  who 
peddle  their  milk  in  villages  and  small  cities,  by  which 
means  they  get  the  full  retail  price.  Milk  is  sold  to  the 
large  contractors  for  from  four  cents  to  five  cents  per 
quart,  while  the  retailer  gets  from  his  customers  six 
cents  to  eight  cents  per  quart,  thus  realizing  from  two 
cents  to  four  cents  for  the  labor  of  delivering.  One 


DAIRYING,  THE  HORSE,  AND  BEES         .  263 

great  advantage  of  retailing  in  this  way  to  one  also  en- 
gaged in  growing  vegetables  and  fruit,  is  that  these  prod- 
ucts may  also  be  sold  on  the  same  route. 

Raising  Calves. 

For  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  raising  calves  has 
been  on  the  decline  in  many  dairying  sections,  this  being 
more  largely  done  in  districts  outside  the  milk  produc- 
ing limits  and  the  cows  shipped  to  dairying  places. 
With  the  increasing  prices  of  all  dairy  products  there 
should  be  some  profit  in  raising  the  female  calves  of  our 
best  cows,  even  by  the  milk  producer,  and  at  the  same 
time  our  herds  would  be  greatly  improved  thereby. 

The  labor  of  rearing  calves  by  hand,  as  must  largely 
be  done  with  the  present  price  of  whole  milk,  is  consid- 
erable, but  the  cost  of  feed  for  the  first  two  years  is 
comparatively  small  and  a  good  two-  or  three-year-old 
will  often  sell  for  from  $30  to  $50,  according  to  her 
promise.  This  work  should  be  done  for  the  pleasure  of 
it,  as  well  as  for  the  profit.  The  young  members  of  the 
family  will  take  great  interest  in  the  "Bossies,"  and 
may  help  in  the  feeding,  and  the  calves  soon  become 
great  pets  and  playmates  when  properly  handled.  By 
careful  selection  of  the  stock  from  which  "  Bossy  "  comes 
a  higher  standard  will  soon  be  established,  and  many  a 
fine  herd  has  been  built  up  from' a  single  high-grade 
animal.  When  one  can  obtain  skim  milk,  this  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  well-cooked  "fancy  middlings,"  or 
linseed  meal,  will  make  a  good  food  for  several  months. 
If  skim  milk  is  not  obtainable,  a  porridge  made  of  the 
above  meals  or  some  of  the  calf  foods  will  keep  the 
calves  in  good  growing  condition. 

If  reared  during  the  winter  they  are  ready  to  go  to 
pasture  in  the  spring,  when  they  will  require  little  or  no 
care  for  about  six  months. 


264  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

During  the  first  winter  after  coming  from  pasture 
they  should  be  fed  fine,  tender  hay,  rowen,  or  clover 
much  of  the  time,  with  now  and  then  a  feed  of  carrots, 
apples,  or  small  potatoes.  Well  ripened  and  thoroughly 
cured  ensilage  also  makes  a  good  fodder  for  yearlings  as 
well  as  for  older  animals. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  dairy  business  in 
connection  with  other  branches  of  the  home  farm,  is 
that  a  regluar  monthly  income  is  received  and  one  does 
not  have  to  wait  until  the  end  of  the  season  for  money 
with  which  to  pay  bills  as  they  come  along. 

Selecting  the  Family  Cow. 

The  man  who  knows  the  "points"  of  a  good  cow  can 
go  into  the  market  and  buy  animals  that  will  be  what  is 
desired,  but  the  inexperienced  buyer  must  depend  upon 
the  judgment  of  others.  Some  farmer  friends  or  some 
reputable  dealer  or  successful  dairyman  should  be  con- 
sulted. The  first  and  last  will  advise  honestly,  and  the 
second  will  often  for  a  consideration  find  for  you  an 
animal  that  will  be  what  you  want. 

THE  FAMILY  HORSE. 

Motorcycles,  automobiles,  and  trolley  cars  have  be- 
come common  in  almost  every  village  and  hamlet,  and 
one  may  go  to  almost  any  section  of  the  country  with 
one  of  these,  yet  the  family  horse  is  not  a  thing  of  the 
past  and  prices  have  been  going  higher  and  higher  for 
these  for  many  years.  No  inanimate  machine,  no  mat- 
ter how  perfect  its  achievements,  can  take  the  place  of 
that  family  pet  that  so  faithfully  and  intelligently  takes 
us  about  for  business  or  pleasure.  A  good,  well-trained 
horse  soon  becomes  almost  a  member  of  the  family, 
and  even  women  and  children  may  safely  feed,  groom 
and  harness  it.  (Fig.  89.) 


DAIRYING,  THE  HORSE,  AND  BEES  265 

The  Stable. 

The  horse  should  have  warm,  rather  light  and  well- 
ventilated  quarters.  Where  room  is  abundant  a  box 
stall  is  much  better  than  the  narrow  tie-up  stall.  The 
family  horse  unless  regularly  fed  and  worked  is  liable 
to  many  diseases,  caused  often  by  improper  food  or 
over  feeding.  The  horse's  stomach  is  small  and  it 
should  be  given  small  quantities  of  food  at  more  fre- 
quent intervals  than  the  cow,  which  has  a  large  stomach 


FIG.  89— The  Family  Horse.    One  That  Has  Done  Service  for 
Twenty-Six  Years,  and  is  Good  for  Many  More. 

and  can  draw  up  the  partially  masticated  food — her 
cud — and  chew  it  over  at  her  leisure.  Very  bulky  food 
in  large  quantities  should  be  avoided,  though  a  feed 
now  and  then  of  meadow  hay  or  corn  stover  may  be 
beneficial. 

During  the  summer  an  occasional  feed  of  green  grass 
or  a  run  in  the  pasture  now  and  then  will  do  the  horse 
much  good,  and  during  the  winter  a  few  feeds  of  clover 
hay,  or  carrots  will  improve  his  digestion.  For  horses 
that  are  working  but  little,  grain  will  not  be  needed 
except  after  having  been  driven,  and  then  a  few  oats 


266  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

will  be  the  best  feed.  For  working  horses  two  parts  of 
oats  to  one  of  cracked  or  whole  corn  make  a  good  grain 
ration,  giving  them  from  one  quart  to  six  or  eight  quarts, 
according  to  size  and  the  amount  of  work  done. 

Timothy  hay  is  generally  considered  the  best  "horse 
hay,"  but  a  clean  bright  mixture  of  several  of  the  so- 
called  English  grasses  with  a  sprinkling  of  clover  in  it 
may  be  equally  good. 

Watering. 

Horses  should  be  watered  two  or  three  times  each  day 
but  never  immediately  after  a  feed  of  grain,  as  owing  to 
the  small  size  of  the  stomach  the  grain  would  be  washed 
out  before  it  was  digested. 

CARRIAGES  AND  HARNESSES. 

Carriages  and  harnesses  are  expensive  additions  to  the 
home  equipment,  but  with  good  care  may  last  a  long 
time.  Varnished  carriages  should  be  kept  where  the 
gases  from  the  manure-pit  cannot  arise  and  disfigure 
them.  They  should  be  kept  clean  by  frequent  washing 
and  wiping  with  chamois  leather;  frequent  examina- 
tions should  be  made,  and  any  nuts  or  bolts  that  may 
have  become  loose  should  be  tightened. 

Harnesses  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  be  cleaned 
frequently,  and  wiped  over  with  harness  soap.  The 
leather  should  not  be  saturated  with  oil,  as  this  causes 
decay,  but  after  washing  and  before  fully  dry  a  dress- 
ing of  oil  should  be  applied.  As  with  our  own  clothing, 
a  stitch  in  time  in  the  harness  often  saves  nine  or  more 
and  also  a  broken  harness  and  perhaps  a  serious  acci- 
dent. In  a  warm  stable  a  thin  blanket  will  be  found 
economical  in  keeping  the  horse  clean,  and  in  a  cold 
stable  a  thick  one  is  needed  for  warmth.  By  the  use  of 
building  paper,  however,  and  a  few  laths  any  stable 


DAIRYING,  THE  HORSE,  AND  BEES  267 

may  be  made  warm,  and  it  will  be  found  cheaper  to  use 
the  paper  than  to  supply  food  to  keep  the  animal  heat 
up  to  a  comfortable  point. 

BEES. 

There  is  no  more  interesting  living  thing  than  the 
honeybee.  It  is  possessed  of  wonderful  intelligence  and 
skill,  producing  large  quantities  of  honey  with  little  or 
no  expense  to  the  owner,  and  at  the  same  time  aiding 


FIG.  90 — A  Modern  Apiary.  Note  the  Terraces  and  Open  Ditches 
to  Ensure  Perfect  Drainage ;  also  the  Shelter  of  Grove  in 
Background. 

in  the  more  perfect  fertilization  of  the  flowers  of  all  our 
fruit  and  ornamental  trees  and  plants.  As  much  as 
one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  choice  honey  has  been 
produced  by  one  colony  of  bees  in  a  single  season. 

Bees  occupy  but  a  small  space  and  require  no  expen- 
sive house  to  live  in.  In  most  large  apiaries  the  hives 
are  placed  in  the  open  and  only  a  few  inches  from  the 
ground  .  (Fig.  90).  Here  the  bees  that  come  in  laden 
with  honey  or  pollen  if  they  fail  to  alight  on  the  board  in 
front  of  the  hive  can  crawl  up  and  reach  the  hive  and 
deposit  their  load.  The  ground,  too,  is  warmer  than  the 


268  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

air,  and  the  hives  are  not  as  much  exposed  to  winds  as  if 
on  a  higher  stand.  Small  apiaries  are  often  placed  upon 
a  stand  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  a  roof  over  it  and 
where  shelter  and  protection  may  be  afforded  during 
the  winter  without  taking  them  into  the  cellar.  Suc- 
cessful apiaries  have  been  located  upon  the  flat  roofs  of 
city  houses,  the  bees  flying  several  miles  in  search  of 

honev.  ~7     „. 

The  Hives. 

The  old  "box"  hive  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  having 
been  superseded  by  those  with  movable  frames  to  which 
the  bees  attach  their  combs,  and  which  can  be  removed 
at  pleasure  for  examination  or  rearrangement. 

Upon  these  frames  is  often  placed  "foundation"— 
thin  sheets  of  wax — upon  which  the  bees  build  their 
combs,  this  serving  as  a  guide  to  enable  them  to  put 
the  combs  straight  and  true  on  each  frame. 

There  are  as  many  patent  hives  as  of  churns  and 
washing  machines,  many  of  which  possess  features  of 
merit,  but  the  more  simple  the  construction  the  better, 
and  one  skilled  in  the  use  of  carpenter's  tools  can  make 
for  a  small  cost  hives  that  are  practically  as  good  as 
many  that  are  sold  at  high  prices. 

Surplus  Honey. 

The  modern  method  of  putting  up  surplus  honey  for 
market  is  by  having  small  boxes  or  sections  holding 
just  one  pound  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  hive  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  bees  will  fill  it  in  regular  and  even 
sheets.  When  quickly  made  the  comb  is  very  white, 
and  all  sections  should  be  taken  off  as  soon  as  the  cells 
are  capped  over.  The  best  honey  is  made  from  apple 
blossoms,  white  clover,  basswood,  and  buckwheat,  grad- 
ing about  in  the  order  given.  That  from  other  and  mixed 
flowers  is  of  poorer  quality.  The  buckwheat  is  dark  and 


DAIRYING,  THE  HORSE,  AND  BEES  269 

does  not  bring  as  high  prices  as  the  light  and  delicate 
honey  made  from  the  first  three  flowers  above  mentioned. 

Swarming. 

One  of  the  greatest  trials  of  the  beekeeper  comes 
in  May,  June  and  July,  when  the  bees  are  liable  to 
''swarm. "  If  left  to  themselves  along  in  the  early  sum- 
mer, the  number  of  bees  becoming  too  great  for  the 
hive,  a  large  body  of  them  with  the  queen  will  start  out 
in  the  middle  of  some  bright  day  to  seek  a  new  home. 
Before  locating  permanently  they  generally  cluster  on 
some  bush  or  tree  nearby  while  scouts  are  sent  out  in 
search  of  a  new  location.  If  taken  at  this  time  and  put 
into  a  new  hive  they  at  once  go  to  work,  and  if  early 
in  the  season,  before  the  supply  of  honey  becomes 
short,  they  will  make  a  strong  colony.  This  natural 
swarming  is  a  very  uncertain  operation,  and  necessi- 
tates constant  watching,  as  often  swarms  will  come  out 
when  no  one  is  near  to  hive  them,  and  they  disappear 
and  are  lost.  Swarming  is  delayed  and  sometimes  pre- 
vented by  putting  on  extra  sections  when  the  bees  seem 
to  be  idle,  but  the  most  certain  method  is  by  artificial 
swarming.  This  consists  in  first  driving  nearly  all  of 
the  bees  into  a  hive  placed  upon  the  one  to  be  divided. 
Two  or  three  frames  containing  young  brood  are  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  new  hive,  which  is  then  placed  upon 
a  new  stand,  two  empty  frames  being  put  in  the  old  hive. 
The  new  colony  will  soon  fill  the  empty  frames  and  rear 
a  queen  from  the  young  brood  of  the  two  frames  given 
them  and  both  will  become  strong  colonies. 

The  details  of  caring  for  bees  at  all  seasons  can  only 
be  learned  by  closely  watching  them  and  studying 
some  of  the  recent  and  up-to-date  books  on  the  subject 
like  "A.  B.  C.  of  Bee  Culture,"  and  by  visiting  some 
good  apiary. 


CHAPTER   XIV 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR 


IN  this  chapter  are  given  suggestions  and  hints  that 
may  call  to  the  mind  of  the  busy  home  owner  some 
of  the  work  that  ought  to  be  done  and  the  time  for 
doing  it,  the  detailed  directions  for  the  doing  of  which 
will  be  found  in  previous  chapters  of  this  book.  These 
suggestions  are  given  under  headings  which  will  enable 
the  reader  to  find  the  desired  suggestions  without  s.earch- 
ing  over  all  of  each  month's  calendar.  They  are  espe- 
cially adapted  to  New  England,  and  to  make  them 
apply  to  more  southern  sections  select  those  of  two 
or  three  months  ahead,  while  for  the  more  northerly 
select  those  one  or  two  months  later. 

JANUARY. 

The  Land. — When  the  land  is  covered  with  snow  or 
frozen  hard,  manure  may  be  drawn  upon  runners  or 
wheels  better  than  later  when  the  weather  may  be 
more  favorable .  for  other  work.  This  manure,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  spread  upon  the  surface  if  the  land 
is  very  sloping,  as  much  of  the  liquid  would  be  washed 
down  hill  during  heavy  rains  or  thaws.  This  month  is 
the  time  to  make  plans  for  the  coming  year.  It  is  the 
school  time,  when  we  may  stop  and  take  a  breath  and 
learn  from  books,  agricultural  papers,  farmers'  insti- 
tutes, etc.,  what  others  are  doing,  the  best  methods  of 
growing  our  crops,  desirable  varieties,  the  best  markets 
and  methods  of  marketing,  etc.  Seedsmen's  and  nur- 
serymen's catalogues  should  be  studied  and  orders  put 

270 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  271 

in  for  the  seeds,  fruit  trees,  and  plants  needed  for  the 
farm  or  garden.  A  definite  plan  for  the  treatment  of 
each  piece  of  land  should  be  made. 

Buildings. — All  buildings  should  be  carefully  inspected 
as  to  changes  or  repairs  that  are  needed,  as  during  the 
leisure  time  of  this  month  and  next  much  of  this  work 
may  be  done,  or  material  be  gotten  out  for  future  use. 
Painting  may  be  done  on  the  mild  days  in  winter.  Oil 
and  paint,  being  a  little  thicker  at  this  time,  will  harden 
more  on  the  surface  and  not  penetrate  the  wood  as  much 


FIG.  91 — After  School  and  Before  Chores.    January. 

as  in  warm,  dry  weather,  though  it  will  not  spread  as 
easily.  Thermometers  should  be  kept  in  all  stables,  and 
vegetable  and  fruit  cellars,  to  enable  us  to  know  what 
the  temperature  is  before  injury  is  done. 

Stock. — See  that  the  stable  is  warm  and  free  from 
cold  drafts  upon  the  animals,  yet  well  ventilated.  Don't 
overfeed  the  horses  that  stand  in  the  stalls  most  of  the 
time.  Regular  feed  and  water  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance. Sheep  and  Shetland  ponies  are  so  thoroughly 
protected  by  their  coats  of  wool  and  hair  that  they 
thrive  best  if  allowed  to  stay  in  the  open  air  most  of  the 
time,  but  must  have  a  dry  place  to  stay  in  during  stormy 


272  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

weather.  Give  the  pigs  a  dry  place  and  an  abundance 
of  bedding. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Little  can  be  done  upon  roads 
and  walks  at  the  North,  but  repairs  and  the  making  of 
new  ones  may  .be  done  further  south. 

The  Lawn. — If  uncovered,  the  lawn  should  be  dressed 
with  a  little  fine  stable  manure,  to  protect  the  grass 
roots.  Coarse,  green  manure  is  unsightly  and  offensive 
and  has  no  advantage  over  that  which  is  fine  and  par- 
tially decomposed. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Ornamental  trees  and  shrubs 
may  be  pruned  during  the  winter  if  one  has  the  leisure, 
except  sugar  maples,  butternuts,  and  birches,  which 
will  flow  sap  from  the  wounds  as  the  weather  of  spring 
comes  on.  These  should  not  be  pruned  until  the  buds 
are  well  swollen  in  the  spring.  Order  for  any  ornamen- 
tals that  are  to  be  planted  in  the  spring  should  be  sent 
in  now,  that  a  good  selection  may  be  obtained.  The 
first  orders  in  are  often  filled  with  the  best  specimens. 

The  Flower  Garden. — The  making  of  plans  and  send- 
ing in  orders  for  seeds  and  plants  is  about  all  that  can 
be  done  at  this  time  of  the  year.  Materials  for  stakes, 
labels,  etc.,  may  be  made  ready  for  spring  use. 

Greenhouses  and  Sash. — If  one  has  a  greenhouse 
now  is  the  time  when  it  should  have  the  most  careful 
attention.  Be  sure  that  all  parts  of  the  furnace  are  in 
good  order,  as  a  break  or  leak  at  this  time  may  mean 
the  loss  of  all  in  the  house.  Replace  broken  or  cracked 
glass  at  once.  Hot-bed  sash  should  be  looked  over  and 
all  broken  glass  replaced  and  the  sash  bars  be  drawn 
with  rather  thick  paint.  This  is  often  as  effective  in 
keeping  out  the  water  and  holding  the  glass  in  place  as 
using  putty  on  the  outside. 

The  Orchard. — If  pruning  of  fruit  trees  is  started 
this  month  and  continued  on  warm  days  it  may  all 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR 


273 


be  completed  before  the  rush  of  work  in  the  spring. 
Pruning,  especially  on  large  trees,  is  slow  work,  and 
should  be  begun  as  early  as  possible.  Prune  from  the 


FIG.  92 — Pruning  from  the  Top  Down.  The  work  may  be  done 
at  any  time  after  the  leaves  fall  up  to  the  opening  of  the 
flower  buds. 

top  down,  as  in  Fig.  92,  and  not  from  the  trunk  up  as 
in  Fig.  51,  Chap.  VII. 

The  Vineyard. — Grapevines  should  be  pruned  dur- 
ing the  winter  but  not  while  frozen. 

Small  Fruits. — Little  work  can  be  done  with  small 
fruit  plantations.  Currant  bushes  may  be  pruned  on 


274  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

warm  days  and  should  the  covering  be  blown  from  the 
strawberry  bed  it  may  be  replaced.  If  this  is  done  just 
before  a  snow  or  rain  storm  it  will  lie  in  place  better 
than  if  put  on  in  fair  weather. 

Tools. — Every  tool  large  and  small  on  the  place 
should  be  looked  over  and  repaired  and  put  into  order 
for  work.  To  prevent  the  iron  and  steel  parts  from 
rusting,  wipe  over  with  kerosene  and  linseed  oil  and 
paint  the  woodwork  with  linseed-oil  paint.  If  a  special 
color  is  selected,  one's  tools  may  be  readily  recognized 
when  borrowed  by  neighbors  who  fail  to  return  them. 
By  this  care  tools  may  be  made  to  last  a  lifetime 

Fertilizers. — Study  the  bulletins  of  the  fertilizer  in- 
spectors of  the  experiment  stations,  to  decide  what  are 
the  best,  and  order  such  as  are  needed  that  they  may  be 
ready  on  the  ground  when  spring  work  begins. 

Seeds. — Nurserymen's  and  seedsmen's  catalogues 
should  be  coming  along  about  this  time  and  should  be 
looked  over  to  see  what  new  things  are 'offered.  Novel- 
ties should  be  tested  only  in  a  small  way,  as  nine-tenths 
of  these  have  not  proved  more  valuable  than  the  old 
standard  sorts. 

Poultry. — Keep  the  poultry  warm  but  give  plenty  of 
air.  Dryness,  an  abundance  and  variety  of  feed — not 
too  much — with  exercise,  is  the  secret  of  the  production 
of  eggs  in  winter. 

Bees. — Look  at  the  bees  occasionally  to  see  that  the 
opening  into  the  hives  is  not  stopped  up  by  ice  and 
snow.  Bees  are  often  smothered  after  an  ice  or  sleet 
storm.  A  packing  of  building  paper  around  three  sides 
of  the  hive  or  a  box  set  over  it  will  help  keep  them 
warm  and  save  their  supply  of  honey  for  use  later  in 
the  winter,  when  it  may  be  more  needed.  Hives  and 
material  for  sections,  etc.,  should  be  looked  over  and 
put  in  order  for  next  summer. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  275 

FEBRUARY. 

Land. — Continue  the  work  suggested  for  last  month. 
Winter  should  be  the  school  time  for  those  who  live  in 
the  country  and  work  on  the  land,  and  every  spare 
moment  should  be  utilized  in  learning  what  others  are 
doing  in  our  line  of  work,  by  reading  the  papers  and 
bulletins  of  experiment  stations  and  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  all  of  which  may  be  had  for  the  asking. 
When  possible,  one  should  visit  neighboring  farmers 
who  are  successful  in  the  same  line  of  work,  attend 
farmers'  meetings,  and  exchange  ideas  as  to  the  best 
methods,  best  varieties,  markets,  etc. 

Every  piece  of  land  we  own  should  be  studied  care- 
fully and  full  plans  made  of  what  we  will  do  with  it 
the  coming  year.  In  no  other  way  can  we  expect  to 
reach  the  best  success  in  our  business. 

Buildings. — Work  of  repairs  or  improvements  on 
buildings  should  be  pushed  so  that  we  may  have  our 
time  free  for  the  active  business  on  the  land  when 
spring  opens.  Watch  the  cellars,  that  frost  does  not 
get  into  them.  A  lantern  or  small  stove  will  often  keep 
out  the  frost,  or  extra  banking  of  hay  outside  may  be 
put  on. 

Stock. — Keep  the  cows  and  horses  in  good  condition 
by  an  occasional  change  of  feed,  giving  them  a  little 
exercise  in  the  yard  or  fields  when  the  weather  will  per- 
mit. Unless  working,  horses  should  be  fed  lightly. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Gravel  may  still  be  put  on  the 
roads  and  walks,  if  the  ground  is  uncovered.  If  heavy 
snows  come  upon  the  roadways,  see  that  the  shrubs 
and  small  trees  are  not  broken  down  when  it  is  shoveled 
out.  See  that  evergreens  are  not  broken  down  by  the 
weight  of  snow. 

The  Lawn. — Unless  conditions  change  decidedly  from 


276 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


last  month,  little  or  nothing  can  be  done  on  the  lawn. 
At  the  South,  work  of  making  new  ones,  reseeding  old 
ones,  etc.,  may  go  on  as  it  would  further  north  in 
March  and  April. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Few  of  us  do  all  the  pruning  that 
our  ornamental  trees  on  the  lawn  or  by  the  roadside 
need,  and  we  therefore  should  keep  the  saws  sharp  and 
on  mild  days  do  what  we  can  to  improve  them.  Every 


FIG.  93— Making  Quick  Work  at  the  Wood-Pile.    February. 

large  cut  made  should  be  covered  with  thick  linseed-oil 
paint  to  protect  it  from  decay. 

The  Wood-Pile. — Most,  people  in  the  country  depend 
upon  wood  with  which  to  keep  warm,  and  getting  up 
the  wood-pile  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  winter's 
work.  In  cutting  wood  the  improvement  of  the  wood 
lot  should  be  kept  in  mind.  By  skill  and  good  judgment 
one  may  cut  out  the  trees  that  are  worthless  for  lumber, 
thin  out  where  they  are  too  thick,  obtaining  all  the  wood 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  277 

needed,  and  that  which  remains  will  grow  all  the  better. 
Old  apple  trees  that  have  badly  decayed  trunks  or  are 
of  the  cider-apple  variety  make  the  best  of  fire-wood 
and  should  be  cut  down.  They  are  only  breeders  of 
insects,  and  the  other  varieties  would  be  much  improved 
by  destroying  them.  The  greatest  fuel  value  is  obtained 
from  wood  that  is  cut  and  split  while  green,  allowed  to 
dry  a  little  while,  and  then  put  into  a  dry,  open  shed  to 
season.  Hickory,  oak,  maple,  chestnut,  and  pine  are 
valuable  in  the  order  given.  A  gasoline  engine  or  even 
horse  power  will  help  make  quick  work  of  the  wood- 
pile. (Fig.  93.) 

Lumber. — If  there  are  large  trees  in  the  wood  lot  and 
a  saw-mill  in  the  vicinity,  it  will  be  economy  at  the 
present  high  price  of  lumber  to  have  some  of  them  cut 
for  lumber  for  repairs  or  new  buildings.  A  few  boards 
and  some  dimension  stuff  for  sills,  studs,  etc.,  will  always 
find  a  use  about  the  country  home. 

The  Flower  Garden.— Little  can  be  done  here  this 
month.  Study  the  catalogues,  make  plans,  and  order 
what  seeds  and  plants  are  desired. 

Greenhouses  and  Sash. — The  work  of  raising  plants  for 
outside  growth  is  going  on  in  the  Middle  States  and  will 
begin  in  earnest  at  the  North  the  last  of  the  month. 
Many  flower  seeds  like  verbenas,  pansies,  Drummond 
phloxes,  etc.,  may  be  sown  under  glass  for  early  out-door 
blooming. 

Orchard. — As  with  the  ornamentals,  pruning  in  the 
orchards  should  be  pushed.  The  old  worthless  apple 
trees  in  the  pastures  and  by  the  roadsides  should  be  cut 
down  and  put  into  the  wood-pile.  Keep  in  mind  that 
pruning  from  the  top  forces  growth  near  the  ground 
where  the  fruit  can  be  easily  gathered  and  where  spray- 
ing can  be  cheaply  done,  while  pruning  from  the  trunk 
up  forces  growth  to  the  tops  of  the  trees  where  fruit  can- 


278  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

not  be  easily  reached  nor  the  necessary  spraying  done, 
and  tends  to  an  early  decay  of  the  trunks  and  lower 
branches.  (See  Fig.  51,  page  148.) 

If  new  trees  are  to  be  planted,  orders  should  be  sent 
in  early  and  all  plans  as  to  distance  and  arrangement  be 
completed. 

Vineyard. — The  pruning  of  vines  in  the  vineyard  and 
on  buildings  and  garden  trellises  should  not  be  delayed 
or  the  flowing  of  sap  when  the  buds  begin  to  swell  will 
injure  them.  See  method  of  training  in  Chapter  IX. 

Small  Fruits. — Pruning  of  the  raspberry  and  black- 
berry canes  may  be  done  now,  though  some  growers 
delay  this  work  until  the  buds  begin  to  start  that  only 
dead  wood  may  be  cut  out.  The  old  and  very  small 
canes  should  be  first  cut  out  and  then  the  new  uninjured 
canes  headed  back  about  one-fourth  of  their  length. 

Vegetable  Garden. — Little  outside  work  can  be  done 
at  the  North  during  this  month,  except  getting  out 
manure,  securing  supplies  of  fertilizers,  seeds,  etc.,  but 
at  the  South  out-door  work  is  going  on  rapidly.  Every- 
thing that  will  relieve  the  rush  when  the  weather  will 
permit  of  out-door  work  should  be  done.  At  the  South 
early  crops  of  peas,  lettuce,  beets,  radishes,  rhubarb, 
asparagus,  etc.,  are  now  being  harvested,  while  these 
crops  are  in  stages  of  development  less  advanced  as  we 
go  north  until  we  find  everything  except  such  as  are 
under  glass  still  in  the  icy  bonds  of  frost  and  snow. 

Tools. — Keep  at  work  upon  the  tools,  and  have  every 
one  put  in  the  best  possible  condition.  No  one  can  do 
good  work  with  poor  tools,  and  it  will  often  pay  to  buy 
new  and  improved  ones,  especially  labor-saving  imple- 
ments like  manure  spreaders,  weeders,  wheel-hoes,  seed 
and  fertilizer  drills,  etc. 

Fertilizers. — Clean  up  the  poultry  houses,  pig  pens, 
box  stalls,  manure  sheds,  etc.,  and  take  account  of  the 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  279 

stock  of  manure  and  decide  what  will  be  needed  for 
the  crops  to  be  grown.  Don't  spread  over  too  large 
an  area.  We  may  often  grow  as  much  on  an  acre  by 
intensive  cultivation  as  is  averaged  on  three  or  four 
acres,  and  the  cost  of  cultivating  the  smaller  area  is 
very  much  reduced.  Too  many  of  us  are  "land  poor." 

Seeds. — Look  over  the  stock  of  seeds  on  hand  and  if 
any  appear  to  be  poor  test  them  in  a  plate  of  moist 
sand  between  two  sheets  of  cheesecloth  or  blotting 
paper.  If  the  percentage  of  germination  is  50  or  below, 
and  that  not  strong,  throw  the  seed  away,  as  the  plants 
coming  from  it  will  probably  be  weak.  Don't  be  too 
late  in  ordering  seeds  for  farm  or  garden;  or  exchang- 
ing with  neighbors,  if  they  have  good  strains,  is  good 
practice. 

Poultry. — The  hens  should  be  laying  heavily  at  this 
time  and  we  should  be  planning  for  the  best  possible 
supply  for  setting  next  month.  The  hens  should  have  a 
great  variety  of  feed  and  be  given  a  run  in  the  open  air 
during  the  middle  of  the  day  when  the  ground  is  un- 
covered. Every  hen  that  wants  to  set  should  be  removed 
to  a  room  away  from  the  other  fowls  and  eggs  be  put 
under  her.  If  a  number  can  be  set  at  once,  at  the  proper 
time  the  eggs  may  be  tested,  the  unfertile  be  thrown 
out  and  the  fertile  ones  put  together  thirteen  or  fourteen 
to  each  hen,  and  those  thus  left  without  eggs  be  given  a 
new  lot.  This  also  should  be  done  with  eggs  in  the  incu- 
bator, and  it  is  advisable  to  have  two  or  three  incuba- 
tors filled  at  once,  that  none  of  them  be  run  with  a  small 
number  of  eggs. 

Brooders  should  be  put  in  repair  or  new  ones  built 
so  as  to  have  them  ready  when  the  chickens  are  taken 
from  the  hens  or  incubators. 

Bees. — On  warm  days  bees  will  be  flying  more  or  less, 
cleaning  out  their  hives,  and  should  be  watched  to  see 


280  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

that  no  robbing  is  done.  If  there  is  any  indication  of 
robbing  the  opening  in  front  of  weak  hives  should  be 
reduced  so  that  but  one  bee  can  pass  in  or  out  at  a  time. 
This  will  enable  weak  swarms  to  protect  themselves. 
If  there  is  any  question  as  to  the  supply  of  honey  in  the 
hives  of  any  colonies,  the  hives  should  be  examined, 
and  if  the  supply  is  short  the  bees  may  be  fed  sugar  and 

water. 

MARCH. 

The  Land. — As  we  go  north  from  Florida  we  shall 
find  the  land  in  various  stages  of  cultivation.  At  the 
North  only  winter's  work  can  be  done,  except  in  un- 
usual seasons,  when  plowing  may  sometimes  be  done  and 
seeds  like  onions,  peas,  etc.,  planted.  The  work  sug- 
gested for  the  two  previous  months  should  be  completed 
as  soon  as  possible,  that  undivided  attention  may  be 
given  to  planting  when  warm  or  suitable  weather 
comes  on. 

Buildings. — As  with  all  other  winter  work,  all  jobs 
upon  or  about  the  buildings  should  be  rushed  to  the 
finish  and  every  moment  be  given  to  it  until  it  is 
completed. 

The  days  are  growing  longer  and  warmer  and  more 
and  more  outside  work  can  be  done,  but  unless  we  have 
planned  wisely  we  often  find  that  we  have  "bitten  off 
more  than  we  can  chew"  and  will  have  to  leave  some 
jobs  unfinished  or  get  behind  with  some  of  our  other 
work.  At  the  North  foundations  of  out-buildings  are 
likely  to  settle  as  the  frost  is  working  out,  and  there  is 
no  better  time  to  repair  this  and  put  the  foundation 
deeper  while  the  ground  is  soft  and  before  the  building 
is  injured.  In  the  care  of  old  buildings — and  new  as 
well — we  should  go  on  the  theory  that  "a  stitch  in  time 
saves  nine." 

Roads  and  Walks. — The  best  time  to  repair  roads  or 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  281 

walks  is  when  the  frost  is  just  working  out  of  the  ground. 
At  this  time  the  gravel  will  settle  into  the  low  wet 
places,  and  it  soon  becomes  well  compacted.  Where 
there  is  a  good  road-bed  only  a  narrow  bed  of  gravel  or 
broken  stone  should  be  put  in  the  middle — not  more 
than  one-half  of  the  width  of  the  road-bed,  as  it  will  work 
out  toward  the  edges  from  the  travel  over  it. 

Look  out  for  the  gutters  and  bars,  as  the  soft  soil  or 


i 


FIG.  94 — Sugar  Orchard  Scene  in  Vermont :  Gathering  the  Sap.     March. 

road  material  is  more  easily  washed  at  this  time  than  at 
any  other  season  of  the  year. 

The  Lawn. — Early  in  the  spring  is  the  best  time  to 
sow  seed  on  the  old  lawn  or  make  a  new  one.  If  manure 
was  put  on  last  fall,  all  of  the  coarse  material  should  be 
raked  off  and  some  good  lawn-grass  seed  be  sown,  raked 
in,  and  rolled.  If  there  are  many  perennial  weeds  like 
dandelion,  chickweed,  speedwell,  etc.,  in  the  lawn,  they 
should  be  dug  out  before  the  raking  and  seeding.  If 
there  was  a  long  growth  on  the  lawn  last  fall  it  would 


282  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

be  best  to  rake  off  as  much  of  it  as  possible  on  a  very 
dry  day,  or  when  there  can  be  no  danger  to  buildings  it 
may  be  burned  off  without  injury.  This  old  material, 
too,  may  be  cut  off  with  a  very  sharp  lawn-mower  and 
used  as  a  mulch  about  the  trees  or  put  in  the  compost 
pile. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — After  the  ground  will  work  up  fine 
and  mellow,  the  earlier  trees  and  shrubs  are  planted, 
the  better.  If  any  pruning  remains  unfinished  it  should 
be  attended  to  at  once.  Roses  and  other  tender  shrubs 
should  be  uncovered  and  the  former  be  severely  pruned. 
The  best  roses  are  produced  upon  strong  new  shoots 
that  come  from  near  the  ground,  and  the  flowers  when 
gathered  should  be  cut  with  long  stems  that  strong 
buds  may  start  out  below  the  cut  and  produce  a  con- 
tinued bloom.  The  covering  about  rhododendrons  or 
other  evergreen  shrubs  should  not  be  removed  too 
early,  but  may  be  thinned  out  and  finally  removed  a 
week  or  two  later.  Shrubs  that  bloom  early  in  the  sum- 
mer, like  golden  bell,  spiraeas,  and  Japanese  quinces, 
should  not  be  pruned  until  after  flowering.  The  manure 
placed  in  piles  about  the  trunks  of  trees  and  shrubs 
should  be  spread  about  under  the  branches  and  if  on 
the  lawn  raked  off  later.  When  fertilizer  is  depended 
upon  for  the  growth  of  trees  or  shrubs  on  the  lawn, 
now  is  the  time  to  put  it  on. 

Spraying  for  the  San  Jose  scale  should  be  done  before 
growth  begins.  The  lime-and-sulphur  scalicide  and 
the  scale  destroyer  have  proved  effectual  in  keeping  this 
pest  in  check  if  not  wholly  destroying  it,  the  former 
proving  a  good  fungicide  as  well  as  insecticide. 

The  Flower  Garden. — Transplanting  of  hardy  herba- 
ceous plants  like  peonies,  iris,  astilbe,  phloxes,  pinks, 
etc.,  may  be  done  at  this  time  of  the  year.  If  the 
plants  are  large  they  may  be  divided  as  shown  in 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  283 

Fig.  34,  Chap.  V,  a  single  clump  of  peonies  or  iris 
making  sometimes  a  dozen  to  twenty  plants. 

Seeds  of  hardy  flowering  plants,  like  alyssum,  candy- 
tuft, hollyhocks,  etc.,  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  soil 
becomes  fine  and  mellow.  It  is  often  the  hot  sun  and 
drying  surface  of  the  soil  that  destroys  germinating 
seeds,  and  they  should  be  sown  while  the  sun  is  low. 

Greenhouses  and  Sash. — This  is  a  critical  time  for 
plants  in  the  greenhouse  and  under  frames.  During 
bright  sunny  days  unless  one  watches  the  ventilators  large 
quantities  of  plants  may  be  destroyed  in  an  hour  or  two. 
Summer  conditions  are  produced  at  this  time  by  fur- 
naces and  the  increasing  heat  of  the  sun,  and  good 
judgment  is  required  to  keep  up  a  healthful  growth. 
Too  much  or  too  little  water  will  cause  serious  injury 
as  will  too  high  or  too  low  temperature,  and  insects 
increase  at  a  wonderful  rate.  Plants  should  be  run  out 
into  the  frames  as  soon  as  possible,  so  that  they  may 
grow  stocky  and  be  well  hardened  off  before  planting 
permanently  in  the  open  ground.  As  the  sun  runs 
higher  the  glass  should  be  shaded,  first  lightly  with  a 
very  thin  mixture  of  white  lead  and  turpentine,  which 
will  give  it  a  ground-glass  appearance.  Then  later  a 
more  permanent  shading  may  be  made  by  adding  a  little 
more  white  lead  and  a  little  linseed  oil. 

The  Orchard. — Transplanting  is  now  in  order  as  soon 
as  the  ground  will  work  up  fine  and  mellow,  but  trees 
should  not  be  planted  when  the  soil  is  sticky  like 
mortar.  See  that  the  tops  and  roots  are  cut  back  as 
shown  in  Fig.  42. 

The  Vineyard. —  All  grapevines  should  have  been 
pruned  before  this  time  and  tied  to  their  support  on 
buildings,  garden  trellis,  or  vineyard  wires.  It  is  better, 
however,  to  prune  now  than  to  let  it  go  undone.  All 
trimmings  should  be  cleared  up  and  burned  to  destroy 


284  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

any  spores  of  disease  there  may  be  upon  them.  Spray- 
ing with  a  thick  Bordeaux  mixture  or  the  lime-sulphur 
mixture  will  help  the  vines  resist  mildews,  anthracnose, 
black-rot,  and  other  diseases. 

Small  Fruits. — Raspberry  canes  may  now  be  uncov- 
ered, straightened  up  from  the  ground,  and  pruned. 
Spraying  as  advised  for  the  grapevine  will  be  a  decided 
benefit. 

Tools. — See  that  every  tool  is  cleaned  and  wiped  dry 
after  using.  They  should  be  hung  up  in  a  dry  place. 
Keep  the  edges  of  hoes,  spades,  etc.,  sharp  with  the  file 
or  on  the  grindstone.  A  pound  of  effort  in  this  way 
will  save  untold  pounds  of  labor  when  we  are  using 
them  among  weeds  and  in  digging  where  there  are  roots 
of  trees  and  grass. 

Fertilizers. — Quickly  soluble  fertilizers  like  nitrate  of 
soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  should  not  be  sown  until 
about  the  time  the  plants  begin  to  grow.  Much  better 
results  will  be  obtained  from  all  fertilizers  if  sown  in 
close  contact  with  the  roots.  For  seeds  it  should  be 
drilled  in  or  finely  mixed  with  the  soil  used  in  covering. 
For  fruit  trees,  small  fruits,  etc.,  it  should  be  spread 
close  about  them  as  far  as  the  branches  or  leaves  ex- 
tend, and  be  cultivated  or  hoed  in. 

Seed  Testing. — No  risk  should  be  run  in  planting 
untested  seed.  If  the  dealer  will  not  guarantee  the 
vitality  of  the  seeds,  a  home-made  tester  may  be  made  of 
two  soup-plates,  a  little  sand,  and  two  sheets  of  blotting 
paper  or  cheesecloth  large  enough  to  cover  the  plates. 
The  sand  is  put  into  the  plate  level  full  and  made  per- 
fectly level  by  drawing  a  straight  edge  over  it.  It  is 
then  wet  almost  to  saturation  and  one  sheet  of  the 
blotting  paper  or  cheesecloth  spread  over  it.  Then  10, 
25,  or  100  seeds  are  placed  on  the  cloth  or  paper,  the 
second  cover  is  put  on,  and  a  little  sand  sprinkled  over 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  285 

it,  and  the  second  plate  put  on  over  all.  This  tester  is 
then  placed  where  the  temperature  is  even,  for  cab- 
bages, onions,  beets,  radishes,  peas,  etc.,  at  about  50° 
to  60°  during  the  day  and  40°  to  50°  at  night,  and  for 
corn,  beans,  cucumbers,  melons,  peppers,  etc.,  70°  to 
80°  during  the  day  and  60°  to  70°  at  night.  All  seeds 
will  germinate  more  certainly  if  the  night  temperature 
is  about  10°  to  15°  lower  than  that  of  the  day. 

Poultry. — Early  hatched  chickens  either  from  the  hen 
or  incubator  will  generally  do  better  in  brooders  if  they 
are  properly  made  and  the  heat  well  regulated.  Many 
kinds  of  brooders  that  work  satisfactorily  are  on  the 
market,  or  very  serviceable  ones  may  be  made  by  any 
one  skilled  in  the  use  of  carpenter's  tools.  For  heat  a 
lamp  must  be  used  with  a  burner  the  blaze  of  which 
will  not  grow  larger  as  the  lamp  and  surrounding  space 
become  warmed,  as  many  ordinary  lamp-burners  do. 

Bees. — Continue  to  watch  for  robbing  and  see  that 
each  colony  has  honey  enough,  for  as  warm  weather 
comes  on  and  they  are  breeding  rapidly  they  will  con- 
sume a  large  amount  and  will  be  unable  to  collect  much 
until  next  month  at  least.  Let  everything  be  cleaned 
up  around  the  hives  and  stands,  so  that  the  bee  moth 
may  not  find  ready  hiding-places. 

APRIL. 

The  Land. — The  work  of  this  month  at  the  North  and 
February  at  the  South  are  somewhat  alike,  except  that 
at  the  South  there  has  not  been  the  frost  and  snow  but 
continued  spring  for  several  months.  At  the  South 
summer  crops  are  being  harvested,  while  at  the  North 
only  spring  planting  is  just  begun.  Seeds  of  radishes, 
onions,  turnips,  cabbages,  celery,  parsnips,  beets,  etc., 
may  be  sown  out  of  doors  on  land  that  will  work  up  fine 
and  mellow.  Mowings  and  meadows  should  be  dressed 


286  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

with  fine  stable  manure  or  fertilizer  before  much  growth 
begins,  though  nitrate  of  soda  will  give  better  results  if 
sown  a  month  later. 

Greenhouses  and  Frames. — These  are  being  crowded 
with  plants  from  seeds  and  cuttings,  which  are  moving 
in  rapid  succession  from  the  greenhouse  to  the  frames. 
All  plants  like  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  geranium, 
verbena  and  other  bedding  plants  do  better  if  hardened 
off  in  the  frames. 

Roads  and  Walks. — These  should  be  fixed  up  as  soon 
as  the  ground  has  settled.  The  farm  road  need  not  be 
of  gravel,  but  when  ruts  are  made  if  a  little  loam  or  turf 
is  put  into  the  ruts,  some  grass  seed  sown  and  then 
rolled  with  a  heavy  roller  or  dragged,  it  will  soon  become 
solid  enough  for  all  ordinary  farm  teaming,  and  be  much 
neater  and  more  easily  kept  in  repair.  Grass  walks 
slightly  crowning  in  the  middle,  the  grass  being  kept 
cut  close  with  a  lawn-mower,  make  beautiful  walks  and 
are  passable  even  in  light  shoes  at  all  times  except 
during  storms  and  after  heavy  dews  in  the  morning. 

The  Lawn. — When  the  grass  has  reached  three  or  four 
inches  in  height  the  lawn-mower  should  be  run  over  it, 
but  it  is  best  to  let  it  get  strong  before  clipping  closely. 
Quickly  soluble  fertilizers  or  fine  stable  manure  should 
be  put  on,  with  a  liberal  seeding  of  lawn  grasses,  all 
well  raked  in  and  rolled.  If  this  is  done  just  before  a 
rain,  the  seed  will  be  nicely  covered  and  start  at  once 
into  a  vigorous  growth. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Transplanting  may  still  be  done, 
but  the  more  advanced  the  season  the  more  severely  the 
tops  must  be  cut  back.  If  the  soil  be  very  dry  water 
may  be  poured  into  the  holes  before  the  trees  are  set, 
or,  after  the  roots  are  partially  covered  it  may  be  put 
in  to  settle  the  soil  about  them.  A  small  quantity  of 
water  used  in  this  way  will  do  more  good  than  many 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  287 

times  the  amount  put  on  the  surface  after  the  hole  is 
filled  up.  After  planting  in  a  dry  time  the  surface  soil 
should  be  kept  light  and  mellow  or  mulch  of  hay  or 
straw  be  used  to  keep  in  the  moisture. 

The  Flower  Garden. — Here,  as  in  every  other  line  of 
work  in  the  farm  and  garden,  every  moment  must  be 
made  the  most  of.  The  earlier  transplanting  of  hardy 
plants  is  done,  the  better.  The  fight  against  weeds  like 
witch  grass,  sorrel,  etc.,  must  be  made  early,  and  the 
weeds  pulled  out  root  and  branch  and  taken  to  the  com- 
post pile.  Annual  weeds  are  best  destroyed  with  a  rake 
or  light  hoe  as  the  seedlings  are  breaking  through  the 
ground.  An  hour's  time  at  this  stage  of  growth  will 
accomplish  more  than  a  day  when  the  weeds  are  large. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — All  crops  that  grow  at  a  low 
temperature  should  be  planted  outside  this  month  or 
early  the  next.  The  asparagus  bed  should  be  cleaned 
up,  the  tops  burned,  and  manure  or  fertilizer  worked 
in.  Rhubarb  beds  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 
If  they  were  covered  last  fall  with  a  heavy  coating  of 
manure  the  coarsest  part  should  be  removed  and  the 
finer  spaded  in.  If  the  soil  is  heavy  cover  seeds  lightly. 
A  good  rule  for  covering  seeds  is,  under  the  average  good 
condition  of  soil,  to  cover  two  or  three  times  their  thick- 
ness when  the  soil  is  well  pressed  upon  them. 

The  Orchard. — If  possible  spray  all  fruit  trees  before 
the  blossoms  open.  Use  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead 
for  all  leaf-eating  insects.  Remove  the  webs  of  all  tent 
caterpillars  from  fruit  trees  and  the  wild  cherry  while 
they  are  small. 

If  young  trees  are  kept  dormant  they  may  be  planted 
until  the  middle  of  May,  but  their  chances  for  growing 
are  much  less  than  if  planted  earlier.  Consult  experi- 
ment station  bulletins  as  to  latest  and  best  methods  of 
combating  insect  and  fungous  pests. 


288  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Small  Fruits. — New  plantations  of  all  small  fruits,  if 
not  made  last  fall,  should  be  done  as  early  as  possible, 
cutting  the  tops  of  raspberry  and  blackberry  canes 
back  to  only  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  after  planting.  Apply  an  abundance  of  manure 
or  fertilizer  about  each  plant  before  growth  begins. 
Spray  these  and  currant  bushes  with  the  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture before  the  leaves  unfold.  The  earlier  strawberry 
plants  are  set  in  the  spring,  the  better.  Use  only  plants 
with  white  roots.  Those  with  black  roots  are  old  plants. 

Poultry. — Chickens  should  have  constant  attention. 
Regular  feed  in  considerable  variety  will  be  needed  for 
the  best  growth.  If  given  the  run  of  a  pasture,  a  brush 
lot,  asparagus  field,  or  raspberry  or  blackberry  planta- 
tion, they  will  develop  rapidly.  If  they  are  kept  in  small 
pens  or  coops  these  should  be  moved  frequently  to  keep 
up  the  supply  of  green  food.  If  hens  are  kept  in  close 
pens,  they  should  be  let  out  a  short  time  each  day  just 
before  going  to  roost.  All  fowls  more  than  one  year  old 
should  be  dressed  for  home  use  or  market  as  they  cease 
laying. 

Bees. — This  is  a  busy  time  with  the  bees.  As  warmer 
weather  comes  on  they  can  gather  pollen  and  a  little 
honey,  and  if  they  still  have  some  stores  on  hand  they 
should  be  breeding  rapidly.  See  that  they  are  well 
supplied  with  honey  for  their  increasing  family. 

MAY. 

The  Land. — Fit  the  land  thoroughly  for  all  kinds  of 
crops.  Harrowing,  rolling  or  dragging  an  acre  one  or 
two  times  extra  when  one  is  at  the  job  will  add  but 
little  to  the  cost,  while  it  may  save  much  after  labor 
and  give  a  much  larger  crop.  Stirring  the  soil,  espe- 
cially on  bright,  sunny  days,  helps  to  warm  it  up 
wonderfully. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  289 

Buildings. — See  that  the  water  from  the  eaves  is  car- 
ried away  from  the  building  quickly,  for  if  sills  are  con- 
stantly saturated  with  moisture  during  warm  weather 
they  decay  rapidly.  Gutters  should  be  arranged  and  the 
soil  so  graded  that  water  will  not  run  back  upon  the 
cellar  walls  if  a  dry  and  healthful  cellar  is  desired. 

Stock. — As  soon  as  feed  has  become  abundant,  the 
cows  and  heifers  should  be  turned  out  to  pasture.  This 
time  ranges  from  the  ist  to  the  2oth  of  the  month, 
according  to  latitude.  As  warm  weather  comes  on  a  feed 
now  and  then  of  carrots,  small  potatoes,  or  green  grass, 
will  do  the  horses  good.  Young  calves  that  have  been 
fed  from  the  pail  all  winter  should  be  tied  out  a  short 
time  each  day  before  putting  out  to  pasture. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Weeds  will  soon  start  to  grow  in 
any  material  on  roads  and  walks  except  coarse  gravel 
or  broken  stone,  and  the  surface  of  the  old  walks,  if  to 
be  kept  clean,  should  be  hoed  and  raked  over  and  a  thin 
dressing  of  screened  gravel  or  broken  stone  be  put  on. 
If  grass  roads  and  walks  are  to  be  kept  up,  levelling  off 
here  and  there  where  ruts  have  been  made,  adding  some 
new  soil  and  lots  of  grass  seed,  will  ensure  a  good  growth 
of  grass. 

The  Dawn. — The  routine  work  of  clipping  is  the 
principal  need  upon  the  lawn  this  month.  The  edges 
of  walks,  beds,  and  borders,  must  be  frequently  cut, 
as  the  grass  spreads  rapidly  at  this  time  of  the  year. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Much  may  be  done  to  improve  the 
form  of  trees  and  shrubs  by  pinching  or  cutting  off  the 
ends  of  shoots  that  tend  to  grow  beyond  the  outline 
desired.  All  sprouts  from  near  the  ground  or  along  the 
trunks  should  be  rubbed  off  as  soon  as  discovered.  No 
large  branches  should  be  cut  at  this  time  except  from 
maples,  butternuts,  and  birches,  which  were  not  trimmed 
in  winter  on  account  of  bleeding.  For  cutting  large 


290 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


branches  the  saw  only  should  be  used,  and  never  the  axe. 
The  Flower  Garden. — Here  as  everywhere  else  weeds 
will  need  attention  and  should  be  treated  as  recom- 
mended for  those  in  the  vegetable  garden.  As  the 
flowering  plants,  like  lilies,  hollyhocks,  etc.,  grow  tall, 
they  should  be  tied  to  neat  stakes.  If  grass-walks  have 
been  made  between  the  beds  the  lawn-mower  should  be 
run  frequently  and  the  edges  cut  often.  The  more  closely 


FIG.  95 — The  Beginning  of  the  Strawberry  Crop.    May. 

the  flowers  like  pansies,  sweet  peas,  etc.,  are  picked  the 
longer  they  will  continue  to  bloom. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — The  close  of  this  month  will 
see  the  seeds  of  all  kinds  of  vegetables  sown — cucumbers, 
melons,  and  squashes,  not  until  the  last,  while  corn, 
beans,  tomatoes,  etc.,  are  planted  or  set  out  earlier. 
Small  lots  of  peas,  sweet  corn,  radishes,  lettuce,  etc., 
should  be  planted  at  intervals  of  two  weeks  in  succes- 
sion for  the  summer  home  supply.  This  month  we 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  291 

should  have  an  abundance  of  radishes,  lettuce,  aspara- 
gus, rhubarb,  spinach,  etc.,  from  our  own  garden. 

The  Orchard. — Follow  the  suggestions  for  last  month. 
After  the  petals  have  fallen,  spray  for  the  codling  moth, 
canker  worm,  plum  curculio,  etc.,  using  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead. 

Small  Fruits. — One  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  an  arsenate  is  all  that  will  be  needed  on  the  small 
fruits  before  the  blossoms  open.  The  currant  and  goose- 
berry bushes  should  have  especial  care  just  as  the  leaves 
unfold,  to  destroy  the  currant  worm,  that  appears  at 
this  time.  Frequent  cultivation  with  the  horse  or  hand 
wheel-cultivator  is  necessary  for  a  rapid  growth. 

Poultry. — Close  watch  must  be  kept  that  chickens  are 
not  taken  by  crows,  hawks,  owls,  skunks,  etc.  Keep 
their  quarters  clean  and  dry.  As  they  increase  in  size 
they  will  require  more  room  and  should  be  put  into*  the 
colony  houses  as  soon  as  the  weather  permits.  They 
will  grow  in  proportion  to  the  feed  and  care  given. 

Bees. — This  month  should  be  the  best  harvest  time 
for  the  bees.  The  blossoms  of  apple  and  other  flowering 
trees  and  shrubs  are  abundant  during  the  early  part  of 
the  month,  and  white  clover  comes  on  soon  after.  The 
best  honey  is  made  from  apple  blossoms  and  white 
clover.  Keep  all  the  bees  at  work  in  strong  colonies  by 
having  plenty  of  sections  on  the  top.  This  may  prevent 
swarming.  Artificial  swarming  may  be  done  on  warm 
days,  taking  frames  of  brood  from  strong  hives  and 
putting  them  into  new  hives  with  most  of  the  old  bees. 
If  this  division  is  carried  on  too  far,  it  may  be  at  the 
expense  of  a  large  surplus  the  first  season,  but  we  have 
two  or  more  strong  colonies  in  place  of  one,  and  perhaps 
would  have  lost  one  or  more  swarms,  had  they  swarmed 
naturally. 


292  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

JUNE. 

The  Land. — As  in  May  the  principal  work  upon  the 
land  is  cultivating  frequently  to  kill  weeds,  produce  or 
develop  plant  food  in  the  soil,  and  prevent  the  escape  of 
moisture.  By  the  last  of  the  month  the  early  crops  of 
peas,  lettuce,  beets,  etc.,  may  be  off  the  land,  so  that 
it  may  be  plowed  or  spaded  and  manured  for  a  second 
crop.  Where  there  is  a  rye,  clover  or  other  green  crop 
upon  the  land,  it  may  be  turned  under  and  the  land 
fitted  for  a  crop  of  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  celery,  late 
beets,  turnips,  etc.  If  a  large  dressing  of  stable  manure 
was  applied  in  the  spring,  commercial  fertilizers  may  be 
used  with  profit  for  the  second  crop,  especially  those, 
quickly  soluble  like  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate, 
potash  salts,  etc.  Bone,  fish,  and  other  organic  manures 
are  so  slow  in  dissolving  that  they  cannot  be  profitably 
used  for  these  late  crops. 

Buildings. — Rain  storms  and  gales  are  more  frequent 
during  the  summer,  and  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  that  doors  and  windows  be  so  fastened  as  not  to 
be  blown  down,  and  any  damage  caused  in  this  way 
should  be  repaired  at  once.  After  continued  dry  weather 
leaks  on  the  roofs,  especially  about  chimneys,  may  be 
discovered  with  the  first  rain  thereafter. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Continue  to  follow  suggestions  for 
the  previous  months.  Keep  gutters  and  bars  cleared  so 
that  in  heavy  showers  the  water  will  pass  quickly  from 
the  surface  and  not  cause  bad  washouts. 

The  Lawn. — The  grasses  grow  rapidly  this  month  if 
there  is  an  abundance  of  rain,  and  the  lawn-mower 
should  be  run  frequently.  It  is  better  to  cut  frequently 
and  let  the  clippings  lie  upon  the  ground  than  to  cut  less 
frequently,  and  have  to  rake  the  clippings  and  cart  them 
away.  If  water  is  applied  to  the  lawn,  enough  should 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  293 

be  used  to  wet  down  to  the  lower  roots.  A  little  water 
upon  the  surface  does  more  harm  than  good,  as  it  causes 
the  roots  to  grow  near  the  surface,  and  with  continual 
drouth  the  plants  are  more  injured  than  if  none  were 
used.  A  little  nitrate  of  soda  or  quickly  soluble  lawn 
dressing  will  help  to  keep  the  lawn  green.  These  should 
be  sown  just  before  a  shower  if  possible. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — The  elm  beetle  will  appear  in 
many  localities,  and  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  or 
Paris  green  is  the  surest  remedy.  If  the  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  used  it  will  prevent  injury  of  the  leaves  by  the 
elm  blight. 

Newly  planted  trees  must  be  watched.  In  times  of 
drouth  if  they  are  found  wilting  a  space  should  be  dug 
nearly  down  to  the  roots,  a  few  pailfuls  of  water  put  in, 
and  the  soil  replaced.  After  this  a  mulch  of  hay  or  straw 
should  be  applied.  If  one  has  running  water,  enough 
should  be  applied  to  the  surface  to  wet  down  to  the  roots. 
As  upon  the  lawn,  a  little  water  will  do  more  harm  than 
good  in  a  dry  time. 

A  power  spraying  outfit  and  at  least  two  good  climbers 
besides  the  driver  are  needed  to  spray  tall  trees  most 
economically.  Spraying  while  the  larva  of  the  gypsy- 
moth,  the  brown-tail,  is  small  is  a  more  effectual  rem- 
edy than  any  traps  or  parasites. 

The  Flower  Garden. — As  fast  as  the  flowers  fade  the 
stalks  should  be  removed  unless  it  is  desired  to  save  the 
seeds,  in  which  case  they  should  be  allowed  to  fully 
mature.  Gather  the  seed  stalks  and  pods  that  are  ripe 
and  keep  them  in  sheets  or  in  large  paper  bags  after 
they  have  been  dried.  Be  sure  to  label  distinctly  with 
name  and  date  of  gathering.  Keep  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 
The  Vegetable  Garden. — Garden  crops  that  require 
high  temperature  like  beans,  corn,  cucumbers,  squashes, 
and  tomato  and  pepper  plants,  may  still  be  planted  arid 


294  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

the  second  crop  of  peas,  beets,  cabbages  and  cauli- 
flowers, etc.  The  fight  with  weeds  must  still  be  kept  up 
and  the  ground  stirred  to  keep  in  the  moisture. 

The  Orchard. — Continue  to  watch  closely  for  insect 
pests.  The  San  Jose  scale  will  begin  hatching  young 
this  month,  which  is  easily  killed  by  most  of  the  well- 
known  remedies  before  the  hard  scale  is  formed  upon 
its  body.  Scalicide,  scale  destroyer,  etc.,  must  be  used 
in  a  dilute  form  during  the  summer  or  it  will  injure  the 
foliage. 

Small  Fruits. — The  first  fruit  of  the  season,  the  straw- 
berry, is  gathered  this  month  at  the  North.  (Fig.  76.) 
For  home  use  picking  once  in  two  days  except  in  very 
hot,  moist  weather  is  all  that  is  needed.  The  value  of 
the  crop  depends  much  upon  how  it  is  picked  and 
marketed.  The  fruit  should  be  cooled  off  as  soon  as 
possible  after  picking,  but  not  put  upon  ice  unless  it  is 
to  be  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars.  Keep  the  ground 
moving  among  all  of  the  bush  fruits  and  the  young 
strawberry  plants. 

Grapevines  must  have  attention,  tying  up  all  canes 
that  are  to  be  grown  for  next  year's  fruiting,  and  pinch- 
ing the  ends  of  all  the  fruiting  laterals  at  the  last  cluster 
of  blossom  buds.  After  this  the  ends  of  all  new  shoots 
must  be  pinched  except  the  two  or  three  new  canes  on 
the  lower  vines  that  are  to  be  fruiting  canes  next  year. 
Vines  on  buildings  and  garden  trellises  must  be  treated 
the  same  way,  except  that  as  many  canes  must  be 
allowed  to  grow  to  their  full  length  as  are  needed  to 
cover  the  required  space. 

Poultry. — As  the  chickens  grow  older  more  space  and 
care  and  feed  will  be  required  to  keep  them  in  a  health- 
ful condition.  Give  them  an  abundance  of  range  for 
fresh  green  food  and  insects,  either  by  moving  the  col- 
ony houses  frequently  or  by  changing  their  ranges. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  295 

The  fowls  that  are  now  ceasing  to  lay  had  better  be  put 
upon  the  market,  and  the  cockerels  separated  from  the 
flock  and  fattened  as  fast  as  possible.  At  this  time  they 
should  be  bringing  high  prices  and  if  well  dressed  will 
bring  an  income  that  will  pay  the  large  and  increasing 
grain  bills. 

Bees. — Keep  a  sharp  outlook  of  the  bees  and  if  they 
swarm  put  the  swarm  into  a  new  hive  and  place  it  on  a 
new  stand  at  night.  Keep  all  idle  bees  at  work  by  add- 
ing sections  to  the  hive  for  them  to  fill.  Any  section  of 
honey  well  capped  should  be  removed  at  once  and  new 
sections  added,  as  the  longer  it  remains  on  the  hive  the 
darker  the  comb  becomes.  The  middle  of  the  day  is  the 
best  time  to  work  among  the  bees,  as  all  are  busy  gath- 
ering honey  and  do  not  have  time  to  look  after  other 

people's  affairs. 

JULY. 

The  Land. — This  is  a  good  time  after  the  hay  is  cut  to 
turn  over  exhausted  mowing  land  and  reseed.  The 
earlier  this  is  done  the  better,  but  the  seed  had  not  best 
be  put  in  until  the  land  has  been  thoroughly  aerated  by 
frequent  harrowing.  August  is  nature's  seeding  time, 
and  seed  sown  on  land  made  thoroughly  fine  and  mellow 
with  the  harrow,  with  500  to  800  pounds  of  good  grass 
fertilizer  per  acre,  will  pay  a  large  profit  upon  the 
investment. 

Roads  and  Walks. — A  heavy  dressing  of  salt  or  an 
application  of  some  "herbicide"  will  kill  weeds  in  the 
walks  and  roads.  This  is  easier  than  hoeing  them  up, 
but  more  expensive,  perhaps. 

The  Lawn. — The  same  care  is  needed  on  the  lawn  as 
last  month.  Annual  weeds,  finger  grass,  etc.,  will  begin 
to  grow  in  the  bare  spaces  among  the  grass  roots,  and 
the  best  way  to  get  rid  of  them  is  to  cut  the  grass  close. 
Sow  more  grass  seed  and  apply  fertilizer  just  before  a 


296  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

rain.  A  thin  dressing  of  very  fine  rich  manure  after  the 
seed  is  sown  is  better  than  lawn  fertilizer. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — These  will  require  little  or  no 
special  care  during  this  month,  except  to  direct  their 
growth  as  suggested  in  previous  months.  We  should 
not  allow  any  growth  to  continue  that  we  must  remove 
next  winter  or  spring  if  we  can  avoid  it.  Removing  the 
seed  pods  of  lilacs,  spiraeas,'  etc.,  will  cause  them  to 
grow  more  vigorously  and  mature  larger  and  more  abun- 
dant flower  buds  the  next  season. 

The  Flower  Garden. — This  month  we  should  be  en- 
joying the  products  of  our  labors  in  an  abundance  of 
flowers,  but  care  should  not  be  relaxed  or  we  may  be 
swamped  with  weeds,  which  grow  almost  in  a  day  at  this 
time  of  the  year.  Large  plants  like  dahlias,  cosmos, 
hollyhocks,  gladiolus,  etc.,  should  be  tied  to  neat  stakes 
to  prevent  their  being  broken  in  heavy  rain  storms. 
Early  maturing  seeds  should  be  gathered  and  put  in 
paper  bags  or  large  envelopes. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — The  planting  of  seeds  for  the 
season  will  end  with  this  month.  Seeds  of  late  beets, 
lettuce,  radishes,  and  turnips  may  still  be  sown,  and 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  celery  plants  may  be  set  out 
in  rich  soil.  Frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  should  be 
kept  up.  Seed  stock  of  all  kinds  of  vegetables  should  be 
selected  before  any  of  the  crop  has  been  harvested.  By 
selecting  seed  from  the  earliest  and  best  stalks  of  sweet 
corn,  the  best  shaped  summer  squash,  the  smoothest, 
best  shaped  and  most  vigorous  tomato  plants,  etc.,  our 
strain  of  these  vegetables  will  be  much  improved.  If 
several  varieties  of  the  above  are  planted  in  the  same 
garden  they  will  so  mix  as  generally  to  be  of  little  value. 
Sometimes,  however,  these  crosses  may  be  valuable; 
thus,  if  a  yellow  sweet  corn  like  the  Golden  Bantam  is 
crossed  with  a  yellow  of  larger  size,  and  the  best  of  the 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR 


297 


stalks  and  ears  of  this  be  saved  for  several  years  until 
its  characteristics  are  well  fixed,  it  may  be  of  more 
value  than  either  of  the  original  varieties.  New  varie- 
ties, however,  require  several  years  of  planting  by 


FIG.  96 — Currants  and  Gooseberries  Ripen  in  July. 

themselves  before  their  real  value  can  be  determined. 

The  Orchard. — In  July  we  begin  to  gather  some  of  the 
tree  fruits.  Cherries  ripen  from  the  middle  of  June  to 
August,  and  must  be  picked  as  soon  as  ripe  or  they  will 
decay.  Birds  are  the  greatest  obstacle  to  cherry  grow- 
ing in  the  Eastern  United  States,  and  where  one  has  but 


298  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

a  few  trees  they  get  them  all.  By  covering  with  old  fish 
nets  or  (if  the  trees  are  small)  mosquito  netting,  some  of 
them  may  be  saved.  In  large  orchards,  the  amount 
taken  may  not  be  missed  and  perhaps  is  no  more  than 
pays  for  the  bugs  and  worms  the  birds  destroy  in  other 
seasons  of  the  year.  Some  of  the  very  early  apples  will 
begin  to  ripen  the  last  of  the  month,  and  all  of  the  first 
droppings  should  be  fed  to  the  cows,  horses,  pigs,  or 
poultry,  to  destroy  the  insects  they  contain.  Pigs  and 
poultry  may  be  turned  in  among  the  trees,  but  cows 
and  horses  will  badly  injure  trees  with  low  heads.  All 
trees  heavily  loaded  with  fruit  as  to  endanger  breaking 
down  should  be  thinned, out  or  propped  up.  It  is  often 
the  case  that  if  half  of  the  fruit  is  removed  from  the 
plum,  pear,  peach,  and  even  the  apple  tree,  that  which 
remains  will  be  much  larger  and  finer,  will  measure  as 
much  and  bring  higher  prices  than  all  would  if  un- 
thinned.  In  this  work  of  thinning  all  defective  or 
wormy  fruit  should  be  picked  off  and  destroyed,  as  it  is 
worthless,  only  continues  to  breed  insects,  and  takes  the 
strength  of  the  trees.  With  plums  and  peaches  no  two 
specimens  of  fruit  should  touch,  and  each  fruit  should 
have  from  three  to  six  inches  of  space  upon  the  branches. 
Small  Fruits. — Strawberries  are  through  with  fruit- 
ing along  the  Middle  States  and  will  last  but  a  week  or 
two  in  New  England,  but  will  be  found  more  or  less  in 
our  markets  for  a  month,  being  brought  from  the  North 
and  East.  As  soon  as  the  crop  is  off,  unless  the  bed  is  to 
be  carried  along  another  year,  which  is  not  the  best 
practice,  the  land  with  all  the  plants,  mulch,  and  weeds 
should  be  turned  under  and  fitted  for  a  crop  of  cab- 
bages, beets,  celery,  or  turnips.  To  plow  this  well  under 
without  clogging  at  short  intervals,  a  sharp  wheel- 
coulter,  which  will  cut  through  all  this  organic  matter, 
should  be  used.  If  the  land  is  free  from  weed  seeds,  it 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  299 

can  be  very  easily  put  into  condition  for  seeding  early 
in  August  and  next  season  will  yield  a  large  crop  of  hay. 

The  new  bed  or  field  must  be  watched  and  weeds  be 
kept  out.  If  not  growing  satisfactorily  scatter  a  little 
fertilizer  along  the  rows  and  rake  or  cultivate  it  in. 
Runners  should  be  placed  where  wanted  or  cut  off  if  the 
plants  are  to  be  kept  in  hills.  Raspberries  and  black- 
berries are  fruiting  and  the  soil  should  be  stirred  fre- 
quently among  the  rows  to  keep  in  the  moisture,  with- 
out which  the  berries  will  be  small  and  few.  All  canes 
coming  up  between  the  hills  or  in  the  rows  should  be 
treated  as  weeds  and  be  cut  off  or  pulled  up.  If  canes 
are  falling  on  the  ground  with  the  weight  of  fruit  or 
foliage,  loosen  the  wires,  place  them  over  in  the  middle 
of  the  rows  and  then  draw  taut  again,  which  will  bring 
the  canes  up  straight  and  close  together.  (Fig.  72.) 
The  fruiting  canes  of  grapevines  should  be  girdled 
about  July  ist  to  hasten  ripening  at  the  North;  at 
the  South  this  is  not  needed.  For  shipping  grapes  this 
is  not  desirable,  as  the  skin  is  more  tender  and  the 
berries  more  easily  crushed. 

Poultry. — At  this  time  of  the  year  poultry  can  be 
given  a  liberal  supply  of  green  food  from  the  garden, 
or  may  obtain  a  large  amount  of  this  food  from  the  pas- 
tures and  fields,  in  the  ranges  among  blackberry  and 
raspberry  bushes,  or  in  the  asparagus  field.  All  cock- 
erels except  those  to  be  saved  for  breeding  should  be 
marketed  as  soon  as  they  are  in  good  condition,  and  to 
this  end  should  be  separated  from  the  pullets  and  fed 
fattening  foods.  There  is  much  danger  of  neglecting  the 
houses,  roosts,  and  nests  at  this  season  of  the  year,  yet 
even  more  care  need  be.  given,  for  during  hot  weather 
vermin  grow  more  rapidly  than  during  the  winter. 
Whitewash  the  walls  and  roosts  with  lime  and  kerosene 
at  least  every  month. 


300  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

Bees. — This  month  little  time  need  be  given  to  the 
bees,  except  to  see  that  all  sections  filled  and  capped  be 
taken  off  as  soon  as  filled  -and  new  ones  put  in  their 
places. 

AUGUST. 

The  Land. — Most  of  the  land  is  now  covered  with  farm 
or  garden  crops.  If  the  grass  land  is  dressed  with  fine 
stable  manure  after  the  hay  has  been  cut,  the  mulch 
and  plant  food  thus  given  will  cause  a  rapid  growth  of 
new  roots  and  shoots,  and  the  crop  for  next  year  be 
greatly  improved. 

Weeds  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  hot-weather  weeds 
like  pusley,  pigweed,  etc.,  are  growing  rapidly  and  the 
only  way  to  keep  them  subdued  cheaply  is  by  stirring 
the  soil  frequently.  When  they  are  small,  light  hoeing, 
raking,  or  using  the  fine-tooth  cultivator,  will  destroy 
them,  but  when  they  become  larger,  the  wing- toothed 
cultivator  or  small  plow  must  be  used  to  cover  them  up 
or  they  must  be  carried  off  the  field. 

This  is  the  best  month  for  seeding  grass,  but  a  fine 
and  deep  seed-bed  and  a  rich  surface  soil  are  necessary 
for  a  strong  growth  of  the  grass  seedlings. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Little  work  need  be  done  on  roads 
and  walks  this  month,  other  than  was  suggested  for  pre- 
vious months.  Keep  the  gutters  clear  so  that  there 
shall  be  no  washing  during  hard  showers.  Tar-concrete 
gutters,  walks,  and  crossings  are  best  made  during  hot 
weather. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — These  are  about  in  midseason's 
growth,  and  many  are  maturing  the  terminal  buds,  so 
that  no  pruning  is  needed.  Hedges  which  are  pruned 
to  keep  them  in  a  close,  low  form  may  now  be  pruned 
for  the  last  time.  The  seeds  of  all  kinds  should  be  gath- 
ered when  those  first  ripened  are  beginning  to  fall. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  301 

Those  maturing  early  in  the  season  like  elm,  red  maple, 
etc.,  should  have  been  sown  at  once  and  at  the  end  of 
the  season  we  will  have  seedlings  several  inches  in  height. 
Pine  cones  should  be  gathered  at  this  time,  put  in  bur- 
lap bags,  and  hung  in  a  dry,  airy  place.  They  are  the 
most  quickly  gathered  by  climbing  into  the  trees  and 
using  long  pruning  hooks  to  cut  them  off.  The  seeds 
will  fall  out  of  the  cones  in  the  bags  when  dry.  This 
seed  is  worth  several  dollars  per  pound.  This  is  the 
best  time  in  which  to  transplant  evergreens  unless  it 
should  be  a  very  dry  season.  A  moist  day  should  be 
selected  if  possible.  See  that  the  soil  is  tramped  about  the 
roots  very  firmly.  If  very  dry  pour  water  into  the  holes. 

The  Flower  Garden, — Bulbs  that  were  not  dug  up  in 
the  spring  and  dried  may  be  transplanted  now,  in  the 
same  ground  or  elsewhere.  Make  the  soil  rich  and 
mellow.  Gather  all  seeds  as  they  mature  and  put  in 
paper  bags  or  envelopes  distinctly  labeled. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — The  supply  of  fresh  vegetables 
should  be  abundant  at  this  time.  All  root  vegetables 
become  fibrous  and  woody,  if  allowed  to  stand  long  after 
maturing.  Cabbages  crack  open;  cauliflowers  branch 
out;  tomatoes  decay,  and  should  therefore  be  gathered 
and  stored  or  sold.  Cabbages  and  cauliflowers  are  espe- 
cially forced  into  maturity  by  frequent  stirring  of  the 
soil  with  the  rake,  hoe  or  cultivator,  and  may  be  re- 
tarded by  loosening  the  roots  a  little.  Sweet  corn,  and 
field  corn  for  grain  or  fodder,  should  be  cut  up  and 
stacked  as,  soon  as  the  kernels  are  glazed  and  before 
frost,  if  possible.  Squashes  must  be  gathered  before 
frost  and  stored  in  a  warm,  airy  place  to  cure,  but  the 
longer  they  remain  on  the  vines  the  harder  the  shell, 
the  drier  the  flesh,  and  the  longer  they  will  keep.  Seeds 
of  the  common  field  turnips,  and  spinach,  may  still  be 
planted  at  the  North,  for  the  winter's  supply. 


302  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

The  Orchard.- — Early  varieties  of  apples  and  pears 
must  now  be  harvested  and  sold  at  once,  as  they  keep 
but  a  short  time.  Where  the  trees  are  low  such  varie- 
ties as  Astrachan,  Williams,  Early  Strawberry,  Graven- 
stein,  etc.,  are  most  satisfactory  if  allowed  to  drop  on  a 
mulch  of  hay,  as  they  are  not  colored  if  picked  before 
they  are  almost  mellow.  Pears  should  be  picked  as  soon 
as  fully  grown  and  ripened  in  the  box  or  barrel  when 
shipped  to  market.  The  color  is  better  if  ripened  in  a 
close,  warm  place.  Peaches  and  plums  for  local  markets 
should  ripen  on  the  tree  and  not  be  picked  until  the 
green  color  of  unripe  fruit  has  changed  to  a  yellow  and 
the  fruit  is  almost  mellow.  If  any  trees  show  signs  of 
weakness  with  leaves  yellow  and  small,  look  for  San  Jose 
scale,  and  spray  as  previously  directed.  Look  also  for 
borers  and  dig  them  out,  or  for  the  woolly  aphis  and  spray 
as  for  the  San  Jose  scale.  Black  knots  on  the  plum 
trees  should  be  cut  off  or  painted  with  linseed-oil  paint 
with  a  little  kerosene  in  it.  Cover  crops  of  peas  and 
barley  will  be  beneficial  if  sown  the  first  of  the  month 
and  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  until  next  spring  before 
turning  under. 

Small  Fruits. — The  principal  work  for  this  month  is 
keeping  down  weeds  among  the  raspberry  and  black- 
berry plants  and  currant  bushes.  Grapes  are  ripening 
the  first  of  the  month  at  the  South  and  the  last  of  this 
month  and  early  September  at  the  North.  (Fig.  97.) 
This  fruit  must  be  ripened  on  the  vines,  and  the  longer 
it  can  hang  the  better  the  quality.  It  requires  but  a 
light  frost  to  destroy  the  leaves,  and  if  the  frosts  come 
before  the  fruit  is  ripened  it  can  only  be  used  for 
cooking.  Vines  in  the  garden  or  on  buildings  may  be 
protected  by  covering,  but  no  method  of  protection  has 
been  devised  that  is  successful  and  profitable  in  vine- 
yards. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  303 

Poultry.— Keep  up  the  fattening  and  marketing  of  the 
chickens.  They  will  soon  "eat  their  heads  off"  if  not 
kept  growing  and  sold  as  soon  as  they  are  mature  enough. 
Pullets  and  fowls  should  have  all  the  run  possible  and  be 
fed  a  variety  of  food,  to  cause  early  moulting,  that  they 
may  begin  laying  before  the  holidays.  Don't  let  the 
hens  and  pullets  out  of  the  houses  until  the  air  is  warmed 
up  in  the  morning  when  there  is  frost. 

Bees. — Watch  the  hives  for  moths,  and  robbing  of  the 
weak  swarms,  as  the  supply  of  honey  decreases.  Bees 
are  like  children,  and  even  older  persons;  when  idle  they 
easily  get  into  mischief. 

SEPTEMBER. 

The  Land. — The  last  of  August  and  the  first  of  this 
month  is  nature's  seeding  time.  The  seeds  of  grasses 
ripen  the  last  of  July  and  early  in  August  and  fall  on  the 
ground,  and  the  rains  cause  them  to  germinate  and  get  so 
deeply  rooted  as  not  to  be  thrown  out  by  the  freezing 
and  thawing  of  the  fall  and  spring.  Weeds  and  brush 
should  be  cut  along  the  walls  and  fences,  and  carried 
away,  and  not  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  to  smother 
out  the  grasses.  If  trimming  is  done  along  the  roadside, 
the  beautiful  species  of  trees,  shrubs  and  vines  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  and  only  the  weedy  and  undesirable 
be  cut.  When  the  surface  of  the  roadside  is  rough  and 
stony,  shrubs  and  vines  make  a  more  beautiful  covering 
than  grass  and  weeds. 

Buildings. — Plans  should  be  made  for  repairs  and  im- 
provements to  buildings  to  put  them  into  the  best  pos- 
sible condition  for  winter.  If  they  are  leaky,  look  for 
loose  shingles,  cracks  between  shingles,  etc.,  which  show 
better  in  dry  weather  than  after  a  rain.  A  slender  spike 
on  the  end  of  a  pole  will  enable  one  below  to  locate 
small  holes  so  that  one  on  the  roof  can  see  where  new 


3°4 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


shingles  are  needed.  Any  boards  that  have  warped  out 
of  shape  during  the  dry  weather  should  be  nailed  in 
place  before  they  come  off  and  are  broken. 

Stock. — Plans  should  also  be  made  as  to  where  the 

stock  will  best  be  win- 
tered. Box  stalls  for 
the  young  stock  and 
possibly  for  the  horses 
may  be  more  desirable 
than  tie-up  stalls. 
Make  doors  and  win- 
dows tight  but  so  as 
to  be  easily  opened  and 
shut  for  ventilation. 

Roads  and  Walks. — 
Road  material  put  on 
this  month  will  be  well 
trodden  before  winter 
sets  in.  On  nicely 
kept  lawns,  flat  or  level 
road  -  beds  on  a  level 
with  or  a  trifle  above 
the  turf  are  better 
than  if  crowned,  but 
where  the  material  is 
poor  crowning  from  six 
inches  to  a  foot  on  a 
width  of  ten  to  twelve 
feet  of  road  -  bed  will 
give  the  best  results. 
In  repairing  put  the  new  material  in  the  middle  of 
the  road-bed,  over  four  to  six  feet  of  road-bed  six  inches 
deep  in  the  center  and  running  down  to  nothing  on  the 
edges. 

The  Lawn. — Keep  the  lawn  closely  clipped  to  prevent 


FIG.  97 — Harvesting  the  Grape  Crop. 
September. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  305 

annual  weeds  from  producing  seed.  If  not  already  done, 
get  some  fine  manure  or  lawn  dressing  and  grass  seed 
on  the  surface  as  soon  as  possible.  Cut  and  pull  out  all 
grass  roots  running  into  the  flower  beds.  If  new  lawn 
is  to  be  made  use  turf  for  the  edges  of  walks,  borders  of 
beds,  etc.  This  will  enable  us  to  work  in  the  walks  or 
beds  when  necessary  without  injuring  the  very  young 
grass  seedlings. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Evergreens  may  still  be  trans- 
planted with  success  if  the  weather  is  moist  and  the 
ground  not  dry.  Greenhouses  that  have  been  resting 
and  drying  out  should  be  started,  watered,  new  soil  and 
lots  of  manure  put  into  the  beds.  Keep  the  houses  open 
as  long  in  the  fall  as  possible  to  keep  the  plants  healthy 
and  stocky.  Sow  seeds  of  lettuce  in  beds  outside. 

The  Flower  Garden. — Planting  of  bulbs  is  now  in  order 
if  they  can  be  obtained.  Many  of  the  importations  of 
Dutch  bulbs  come  later  than  this  month,  but  those 
taken  from  the  beds  last  spring  after  blooming  may  be 
put  in  at  any  time.  The  richer  the  bed  is  made  and  the 
finer  the  soil  the  better  will  be  the  bloom  next  spring. 
Hardy  herbaceous  plants  like  peonies,  iris,  etc.,  may  be 
transplanted  as  well  as  all  kinds  of  bulbs.  Make  the 
beds  very  rich.  Upon  the  lawn  very  pretty  results  are 
obtained  by  planting  crocus  bulbs  in  the  grass.  A  hole 
an  inch  or  two  in  diameter  and  four  inches  deep  is  made, 
the  bulb  is  placed  at  the  bottom  and  the  hole  filled 
with  fine  rich  soil.  These  will  bloom  one  or  two  years 
and  then  must  be  renewed. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — The  tender  vegetables  must  be 
harvested  at  the  North  before  heavy  frosts  appear.  The 
leaf  stalks  of  celery  plants  must  be  drawn  together  and 
the  soil  packed  about  them  to  make  them  grow  close 
and  straight.  Potatoes  are  generally  better  out  of  the 
ground  after  this  month  if  one  has  a  cool  place  in  which 


3°6 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


to  store  them;  otherwise  they  will  be  better  in  the 
ground  until  cool  weather  comes  on.  If  the  pea  and 
bean  pods  were  not  picked  clean  they  may  be  pulled 
when  ripe,  dried,  and  later  threshed  out  for  winter  use. 
These  are  just  as  nutritious  for  winter  use  as  the  small 
white  beans  and  peas,  though  they  may  not  look  as 
well.  Cultivation  of  the  soil,  while  not  as  much  needed 
as  during  July  and  August,  must  be  kept  up  to  kill  the 


FIG.  98 — Sorting  and  Packing  Apples.    October.     This  work  may  be 
done  as  picked  from  the  tree,  or  in  the  more  leisure  time  later. 

weeds  and  help  the  growth  of  late  growing  crops  like 
cabbages,  cauliflowers,  etc. 

The  Orchard. — On  orchards  in  cultivation  this  should 
cease  unless  the  trees  are  weak.  When  in  turf  more 
mulch  of  old  hay,  straw,  or  weeds  may  be  put  on  at  any 
time  if  needed,  but  must  not  be  close  to  the  trunks  as  it 
will  shelter  mice. 

Nearly  all  fall  varieties  of  apples  and  pears  are  now 
ripening  and  must  be  marketed  before  they  become 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  307 

mellow.  Keep  the  dropped  fruit  cleaned  up  and  fed  to 
the  stock  or  chickens.  Pick  the  pears  when  the  wormy 
specimens  are  beginning  to  mellow  but  don't  pick  until 
fully  grown.  The  largest  may  be  picked  first,  when  the 
small  ones  will  grow  faster  and  may  be  picked  later.  To 
ripen  quickly  after  picking  keep  them  in  the  dark  at  60° 
to  70.°  The  lower  the  temperature  the  longer  they  will 
keep.  The  last  of  this  month  and  early  October  is  the 
best  time  for  picking  winter  fruit;  if  fully  grown  and 
well  colored,  at  the  earlier  date,  or  if  not  well  colored, 
from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  October. 

If  help  is  abundant  and  the  weather  good  apples  and 
pears  should  be  picked  and  packed  in  the  orchard,  but 
with  large  crops  this  is  not  always  possible  and  a  part 
of  the  crop  should  be  put  into  some  cool,  dry  place 
like  a  north  shed  or  barn  floor  (Fig.  98),  where  they 
may  be  packed  in  stormy  weather.  The  sooner  apples 
are  sorted  and  packed  and  put  into  a  cool  place  with 
even  temperature,  the  better. 

Small  Fruits. — Little  time  need  be  spent  in  the  care 
of  small  fruits  this  month  unless  one  has  leisure.  The 
old  canes  may  be  cut  out  from  the  raspberry  and  black- 
berry plantations,  grapevines  may  be  pruned  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  fall,  trellises  repaired,  etc.,  but  this  work  can 
as  well  be  delayed  until  there  is  more  leisure. 

Poultry. — As  cold  weather  comes  on  more  care  is 
needed  with  the  pullets  and  laying  hens.  Keep  them 
clean,  warm  and  dry,  give  a  variety  of  food  and  fresh 
water,  and  allow  them  to  run  on  dry  pleasant  days  as 
much  as  possible.  Give  them  plenty  of  roost  room. 
One  cockerel  should  be  allowed  for  each  twelve  to 
fifteen  pullets. 

Bees. — Few  flowers  will  be  in  bloom  this  month  and 
the  bees  must  depend  upon  their  stores  for  food.  It  is 
best  to  remove  all  surplus  honey  in  supers,  and  if  the 


308  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

supply  is  short  in  the  frames  below  let  them  fill  them  up 
from  partially  filled  sections,  or  supers.  Watch  for  rob- 
bers and  protect  weak  swarms  by  closing  the  mouth  of 
the  hives.  OCTOBER. 

The  Land. — This  month  is  a  good  time  to  top  dress 
grass  land,  especially  on  hilly  lots  where  the  manure 
will  have  time  to  wash  in  before  winter  sets  in  and  the 
fine  particles  to  settle  into  spaces  about  the  grass  roots. 
The  soil,  too,  is  warm,  which  tends  to  a  growth  of  the 
grass  roots  while  the  tops  are  kept  dormant  by  the 
frosty  air. 

Late  fall  plowing  on  steep  slopes  is  not  advisable  but 
upon  level  land  will  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil  and 
make  it  work  up  fine  and  mellow  early  in  the  spring. 
If  a  cover  crop  of  peas  and  barley,  oats,  Japanese  millet, 
etc.,  is  upon  the  land  it  is  best  not  to  plow  it  under  until 
spring  as  this  cover  prevents  washing  of  the  soil  and 
keeps  it  light  during  the  winter. 

Buildings. — The  cold  frosty  nights  remind  us  that  we 
must  get  ready  for  winter,  and  the  stables,  outbuildings, 
and  poultry  houses  must  be  put  into  order  before  the 
severe  cold  weather. 

The  more  permanent  these  improvements  are  made 
the  better,  yet  all  of  these  buildings  can  be  made  tidy 
and  warm  by  a  combination  of  building  paper  and 
laths  or  battens.  Roofing  materials  may  be  put  upon 
the  outside  and  painted  the  color  of  the  main  buildings, 
and  will  present  a  very  neat  appearance.  The  green- 
houses should  be  looked  over  and  all  loose  glass  fastened 
in  place.  It  pays  to  draw  the  sash  bars  on  the  outside 
with  white  lead  and  oil-paint  every  year. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Suggestions  made  for  last  month 
apply  equally  well  for  this.  New  roads  and  walks  and 
repairs  on  old  ones  can  be  made  at  any  time. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  309 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Many  trees  and  shrubs  can  be 
more  successfully  transplanted  this  month  than  later 
this  fall  or  next  spring.  At  any  time  after  the  leaves 
begin  to  turn  they  may  be  transplanted. 

Root  formation  is  more  rapid  at  this  time,  while  the 
soil  is  warm,  and  the  atmosphere  cold.  In  exposed 
places  delicate  trees  and  shrubs  like  magnolias,  tulip 
trees,  Japanese  maples,  etc.,  should  be  protected  after 
planting  by  setting  up  pine  boughs  on  the  north  and 
west  sides  and  somewhat  in  among  the  branches. 

The  Lawn. — The  final  mowing  of  the  lawn  may  be 
made  the  last  of  the  month,  as  it  is  not  best  to  have  a 
too  heavy  covering  of  old  grass  on  the  land  over  winter. 
After  cutting,  a  light  dressing  of  fine  manure  and  grass 
seed  will  be  all  that  is  needed  this  fall. 

The  Flower  Garden. — Beds  from  which  annuals  and 
other  plants  have  been  removed  should  have  a  good 
coating  of  manure  spaded  in,  and  the  borders  neatly 
cut,  and  will  be  in  fine  condition  for  next  spring  plant- 
ing. Bulbs  of  hyacinths,  tulips,  crocuses,  snowdrops, 
and  even  lilies  may  be  planted,  and  irises,  peonies,  golden 
glow,  poppies,  etc.,  if  these  have  not  already  been 
planted. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — Manure  spaded  or  plowed 
under  at  this  time  will  put  the  land  in  fine  condition 
for  early  spring  planting.  Beets  and  carrots  should  be 
dug  and  put  into  the  cellar  before  severe  freezing  weather. 
To  keep  root  vegetables  from  wilting  in  a  dry  cellar 
pack  in  slightly  moistened  soil  or  sand  or  in  moist 
leaves,  which  keeps  them  better  and  is  cleaner  and  more 
easily  handled.  The  greenhouses  should  be  in  full  run- 
ning order  with  carnations,  violets,  etc.,  and  lettuce  will 
be  ready  to  transplant  from  the  frames. 

The  Orchard. — All  winter  apples  should  be  picked 
as  soon  as  fully  grown  and  well  colored.  This  time 


31  o  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

varies  in  different  seasons  with  Baldwins,  etc.,  from 
the  loth  to  2oth  of  October  in  Eastern  United  States. 
The  longer  they  can  be  left  on  the  trees  without  waste 
by  dropping  or  injury  by  frost,  the  larger  and  better 
colored  they  will  be.  Late  picking  lessens  the  labor  of 
picking  and  sorting,  as  most  of  the  wormy  fruit  has 
fallen.  Late  varieties  of  pears  like  Anjou,  Winter  Nelis, 
Hovey,  etc.,  should  also  be  left  on  the  trees  as  long  as 
possible,  but  severe  freezing  will  injure  them.  If  there 
is  a  mulch  of  hay  or  straw  about  the  trunks  of  young 
trees,  see  that  it  is  drawn  away,  and  fresh  soil  or  coal 
ashes  packed  about  them.  Where  there  are  a  large 
number  of  trees  painting  with  fresh  limewash,  and  Paris 
green,  will  be  the  cheapest  and  best  protection  from 
mice  and  rabbits.  Apple,  pear  and  plum  trees  are  bet- 
ter planted  in  the  fall,  if  it  can  be  done  this  month  and 
the  soil  is  not  too  wet  and  soggy. 

Small  Fruits. — Any  weeds  starting  among  the  straw- 
berry plants  should  be  hoed  or  pulled  and  carried  off 
the  land,  as  at  this  time  they  grow  almost  as  readily  on 
top  as  in  the  soil.  This  applies  especially  to  chickweed, 
witch  grass,  etc. 

Raspberry,  blackberry,  and  currant  bushes  can  be 
more  successfully  planted  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring. 
By  cutting  the  cane  of  the  former  down  to  about  six 
inches,  and  placing  a  large  forkful  of  manure  over  it, 
they  will  be  protected  and  start  very  vigorously  next 
spring.  Cuttings  of  currants  and  grapevines  will  root 
more  certainly  if  made  early  than  later.  Root  cuttings 
of  raspberries  and  blackberries  should  also  be  made  this 
month  and  next. 

Poultry. — Fowls  should  have  completed  moulting  by 
this  time  and  be  ready  for  laying.  An  abundance  and 
variety  of  feed  is  necessary  for  the  best  results,  but 
fattening  food  should  be  avoided. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  311 

The  "dry  mash"  system  of  feeding  is  very  attractive, 
and  should  be  given  a  trial.  If  successful  it  reduces  the 
labor  to  the  minimum.  The  best  mixture  perhaps  has 
not  been  determined  by  practice  for  ordinary  condi- 
tions, but  probably  equal  quantities  of  shorts,  gluten, 
linseed,  ground  oats,  and  corn  meal  and  scraps  always 
before  the  fowls  should  be  given  a  trial,  with  whole  corn, 
barley  and  buckwheat,  to  be  scattered  in  the  litter. 
Oyster  shells,  grit  and  green  feed  should  also  be  before 
the  fowls  all  the  time. 

Bees. — We  must  look  after  the  supply  of  honey  in 
the  hives  for  winter's  use,  as  little  or  no  more  will  be 
gathered  this  fall.  It  is  generally  thought  that  there 
should  be  five  or  six  frames  well  covered  with  bees  and 
at  least  thirty  pounds  of  honey  at  this  time  to  enable 
a  colony  to  go  through  the  winter  safely.  The  honey 
should  be  iri  such  a  position  in  the  hive  as  to  allow  the 
bees  to  get  at  it  in  the  coldest  weather. 

NOVEMBER. 

The  Land. — Work  may  be  continued  on  the  land  as 
suggested  for  last  month.  Clearing  up  of  all  waste 
materials,  burning  the  coarsest  and  composting  the 
finer  parts  is  always  in  order.  Compost  may  be  carted 
out  and  spread  on  level  land,  but  on  hilly  land  is  best 
put  in  piles  until  spring. 

Buildings. — Repairs  of  the  quarters  for  the  stock 
should  be  completed  before  extreme  cold  weather 
comes  on. 

Stock. — Young  stock  should  be  taken  in  from  pasture 
from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  the  month.  If  the  pas- 
ture is  near  by,  they  may  be  let  out  a  short  time  in  the 
middle  of  each  day  with  advantage. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. — Planting  may  continue  during  the 
early  part  of  the  month  if  the  soil  will  work  up  fine  and 


312 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


mellow.  Newly  transplanted  trees  of  large  size  should 
have  supports  of  stakes  or  wire  guys  to  keep  the  wind 
from  swaying  them  back  and  forth  and  thus  letting  air 
down  to  the  roots.  Mounds  of  soil  will  help  to  support 
smaller  trees.  A  mound  of  rich  manure  should  be  put 
about  all  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  before  the  ground 
freezes. 

Pine  boughs  should  be  set  up  about  the  rhododendrons 
and  other  broad-leaved  evergreens  or  any  other  tender 


FIG.  99 — Raising  Turkeys  Almost  a  Lost  Art.    November. 

trees  and  plants.  Hemlock  and  spruce  branches  will  not 
do  for  this,  as  the  leaves  soon  drop  off,  but  all  species  of 
pines,  arbor-vitae,  and  junipers  hold  their  leaves.  Oak 
branches  that  retain  their  leaves  all  winter  may  be  used 
in  the  same  manner. 

The  Lawn. — Keep  the  leaves  raked  from  the  lawn. 
If  piled  up  in  thick  masses  the  grass  roots  under  them 
are  injured.  They  are  worth  much  more  than  the  cost 
of  raking  up  for  bedding,  for  litter,  for  poultry,  and  for 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  313 

compost.  They  are  very  easily  gathered  by  spreading 
out  a  large  canvas  or  street  horse  blanket  and  raking 
them  upon  it.  Then,  taking  hold  of  the  four  corners,  a 
large  quantity  can  be  swung  upon  the  shoulder  and 
carried  to  the  shed  or  stable. 

Buildings. — Continue  suggestion  given  last  month 
until  all  buildings  are  snug  and  ready  for  winter.  Look 
to  the  eave-troughs  and  gutters  and  keep  them  clear  so 
that  roof  water  may  be  carried  quickly  away.  In  using 
paper  inside  the  poultry  house  cover  the  spaces  between 
the  rafters  as  well  as  the  sides,  and  see  that  the  ground 
for  two  or  three  feet  away  from  the  foundations  is 
covered  with  hay  or  straw  so  that  the  frost  cannot  work 
through  it  under  the  floor. 

The  Flower  Garden. — There  are  always  a  few  last 
things  to  be  done  in  the  garden  if  the  weather  permits. 
Roses  should  be  banked  up  with  soil  or  manure  and  the 
tops  tied  up  in  loose  straw.  All  rubbish  should  be  gath- 
ered up  and  put  into  the  compost  heap  or  brush  pile. 
Most  of  the  tops,  leaves,  etc.,  that  come  from  this  clean- 
ing up  will  in  a  year  or  so  make  good  compost  and  it  is  a 
waste  to  burn  it,  when  we  would  have  only  a  few  ashes 
of  little  value  left. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — Everything  in  the  vegetable 
line  should  be  under  cover  by  the  middle  of  this  month. 
Cabbages,  kale,  sprouts,  and  turnips  will  often  stand 
longer  without  injury  but  it  is  unsafe  to  leave  them 
much  later  than  this.  Celery,  if  left  out  longer  than  the 
ist,  should  be  banked  to  the  top,  covering  nearly  or 
quite  all  of  the  leaves  after  the  middle  of  the  month, 
but  should  be  put  into  the  pit  or  cellar  on  a  cold,  dry 
day.  This  crop  in  the  home  garden  is  often  kept  in  the 
ground  where  grown  until  used.  When  the  top  of  the 
ground  has  frozen  an  inch  or  so  deep  a  light  covering  of 
hay  is  put  over  the  whole  bank,  and  when  colder  weather 


314  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 

comes  on  a  little  more  is  added,  and  so  on  until  enough 
is  on  to  prevent  further  freezing  of  the  soil  about  the 
plants,  when  a  few  boards  are  put  on  to  shed  rain. 
When  wanted,  open  one  end  of  the  row,  take  out  what 
is  needed  for  a  week  or  so,  and  cover  again.  When  skil- 
fully done  this  method  is  very  satisfactory,  is  easier 
than  digging  and  storing  in  cellar  or  pit,  and  the  celery 
is  rather  more  crisp.  Parsnips  and  salsify  are  improved 
by  freezing,  the  starch  in  these  roots  being  changed 
into  sugar  by  the  action  of  frost,  and  are  often  left  out 
all  winter.  Such  as  are  wanted  for  winter's  use  must  be 
dug  before  the  ground  freezes,  and  to  prevent  wilting, 
which  injuries  them  very  much,  they  should  be  packed 
in  sand  or  slightly  moistened  leaves. 

The  Orchard. — Little  work  will  need  be  done  in  the 
orchard  this  month,  though  the  planting  of  young  trees 
may  still  be  done  during  the  early  part  of  it.  Pruning, 
too,  may  be  done  if  one  has  the  leisure,  but  all  cuts  made 
now  must  be  more  thoroughly  covered  with  paint  than 
if  done  the  latter  part  of  winter.  Young  trees  not  pro- 
tected from  mice  should  be  painted  with  fresh  limewash 
and  Paris  green.  Don't  use  wash  that  has  stood  more 
than  a  few  hours. 

Small  Fruits. — Planting  of  the  bush  fruits  may  still 
continue  up  to  the  middle  of  this  month.  The  canes 
of  tender  varieties  of  raspberries  should  be  laid  down 
and  the  tips  covered  with  enough  soil  to  hold  them 
close  to  the  ground.  Bend  toward  the  south,  so  that 
the  sun's  rays  will  strike  the  canes  at  the  ends  and  not 
broadside.  Tender  varieties  of  grapes  like  Roger's 
Hybrids,  lona,  Niagara,  Salem,  Brighton,  etc.,  will  be 
benefited  by  laying  on  the  ground  and  covering  with  a 
little  soil.  Cuttings  may  still  be  made  and  they  may  be 
planted  or  put  into  moist  soil  in  a  cold  cellar  until 
spring.  The  strawberry  bed  must  be  covered  before 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  315 

severe  freezing.  Pine  needles,  coarse  strawy  manure, 
hay,  straw,  corn  stalks,  etc.,  may  be  used.  Forest 
leaves  often  compact  so  as  to  cause  injury. 

Poultry. — If  egg  producing  is  to  be  made  profitable 
the  fowls  must  be  laying  freely  now  while  prices  are  at 
their  highest.  Keep  stopping  up  the  places  where  cold 
can  get  in  but  have  as  full  ventilation  as  possible,  with- 
out drafts.  Have  a  store  of  green  food,  gravel  and  litter 
for  use.  Cabbages  for  the  fowls  may  be  stored  on  the 
north  side  of  the  houses  and  when  freezing  weather 
comes  on  leaves  and  straw  thrown  over  them  will 
enable  one  to  get  them  out  readily.  Soft  heads  of  cab- 
bage may  be  bought  at  from  $i  to  $3  per  load,  accord- 
ing to  size.  Paint  roosts  with  lime  wash  and  kerosene 
for  nits,  and  have  plenty  of  dust  for  the  fowls  to  wallow 
in  to  keep  down  lice. 

Bees. — Make  all  colonies  snug  for  the  winter.  If 
there  are  only  enough  bees  in  a  colony  to  cover  five 
frames  crowd  those  containing  the  most  brood  and  honey 
together  and  put  in  a  division  board.  If  they  have  less 
than  twenty-five  pounds  of  honey,  feed  them  enough 
sugar  and  water  in  the  top  of  the  hive  to  make  up  this 
amount.  At  the  North  the  colonies  should  be  kept  in  a 
dry,  cool  cellar,  or  have  a  box  cover  lined  with  hay  put 
over  them.  Some  only  put  a  bag  of  hay  in  the  super 
chamber. 

DECEMBER. 

The  Land. — Work  suggested  for  last  month  may  still 
be  done  if  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  Manure  may  be 
drawn  out  even  if  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow. 

Buildings. — Continue  to  put  the  buildings  in  order  for 
winter.  If  frost  works  into  any  of  the  cellars  bank  up 
with  more  hay  or  straw  or  use  tarred,  building,  or  roof- 
ing paper.  The  latter  may  be  put  on  neatly  against  the 
underpinning  either  outside  or  inside.  Have  thermom- 


316 


THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  PLACE 


eters  in  every  place  where  frost  would  do  harm  and 
watch  them  closely.  A  pan  of  water  on  the  cellar  bot- 
tom is  a  good  thermometer.  This  will  freeze  over  when 
32°  is  reached,  and  much  before  any  vegetable  or  fruit 
crop  will  be  injured. 

Roads  and  Walks. — Finishing  up  the  work  suggested 

for  last  month  is 
about  all  there  is  to 
be  done.  When 
snow  covers  the 
ground  small  stakes 
should  be  set  up  to 
mark  the  boundary 
of  roads  and  walks, 
that  the  borders  of 
lawns  be  not  cut  up 
by  driving  or  walk- 
ing over  them. 

Trees  and  Shrubs. 
— These  need  but 
little  attention  this 
month  if  suggestions 
for  the  previous 
months  have  been 
carried  out.  Orna- 
mental groves  and 
wood  lots  may  be 
improved  by  thinning  out  surplus  and  poor  material 
for  fire  -  wood.  With  even  unskilled  help  very  good 
work  may  be  done,  the  owner  or  some  one  of  experi- 
ence marking  with  blue  chalk  or  crayon  what  and 
where  to  cut. 

The  Lawn. — Pick  up,  clean  up  all  leaves,  and  put  on  a 
dressing  of  fine  manure,  if  this  has  not  already  been 
done.  Coarse  green  manure  is  offensive  and  unsightly 


FIG.  100— A  Christmas  Tree  Cut  from  the  Top 
of  a  Norway  Spruce  to  Force  Growth  Into 
the  Lower  Branches.  December. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  317 

and  if  grass  seed  is  used  with  the  fine  compost  it  will 
have  a  much  better  effect. 

The  Flower  Garden. — Here,  as  with  other  parts  of  the 
home  grounds,  is  a  season  of  rest.  Beds  of  bulbs  that 
have  not  been  covered,  should  have  five  or  six  inches  of 
manure  spread  over  the  surface. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — Little  can  be  done  in  the  vege- 
table garden,  but  the  stored  products  should  have 
attention  and  if  any  are  decaying  or  wilting  the  cause 
should  be  removed.  Apples  keep  best  at  an  even  tem- 
perature of  about  33°;  potatoes,  40°;  squashes,  52°.  A 
lantern  or  small  kerosene  stove  may  be  needed  in  the 
storage  room  in  extremely  cold  weather  to  keep  the 
frost  out. 

Small  Fruits. — The  raspberry  plantation  should  be 
looked  over,  and  if  any  canes  have  sprung  up  from  the 
covering  they  should  be  laid  down  if  the  ground  is  not 
frozen.  Should  the  covering  have  blown  from  the 
strawberry  bed,  put  it  back  and  throw  a  little  soil, 
poles,  or  brush  upon  it  to  keep  it  in  place. 

Poultry. — The  great  secret  of  success  in  producing 
eggs  in  winter  is  to  have  a  warm  house  where  the  fowls 
can  retire  to  feed  and  roost.  They  must  have  fresh  air 
even  if  it  is  cold,  and  must  have  an  abundance  and 
variety  of  food.  The  days  are  short  and  the  fowls 
should  be  started  early  in  the  morning  by  giving  whole 
grain  in  the  litter  and  fresh  water.  The  warm  mash 
may  be  given  at  morning  or  night,  if  the  dry  mash  is 
not  found  satisfactory. 

Bees. — Little  can  be  done  for  the  bees  at  this  time, 
except,  if  out  of  doors,  to  see  that  the  opening  in  front 
of  the  hive  is  not  closed  by  ice,  and  the  bees  smothered. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Annuals 109-1 10 

Apples 135,  138,  150-155,  243 

harvesting 151 

keeping 151-152 

shipping 152-153 

varieties 150 

pests I53-I54 

Apple  trees,  cost  of 141 

in  turf 141 

Apricots ? 179-180 

April,  routine  work  for 285-288 

Arbors 95 

Asparagus 220-222 

Asters 106 

August,  routine  work  for 300-303 

Barn 44 

Beans 222-223 

Bees 267-269 

Beets 223 

Biennials 114 

Blackberries 198-202 

Brick  houses 61 

Brooders 249 

Building  Associations 52 

Buildings,  of  a  country  home.  .22-23 

made  tight  and  warm 45 

Bulbs 113,    115 

Bush  fruits 198-215 

Cabbages 223-225 

Calendar  of  routine  work.  ..  270-3  17 

Calves 263-265 

Capital    required    for    a    country 

home 29 

Carriage- house 44 

Carriages 266 

Carrots 227 

Cauliflowers 225-226 

Celery 227-230 

Cement 65,  68 

mixing 83 

Cement  concrete  houses 61-67 

Cherries 137,  180-181 

marketing 181 

varieties 181 

pests 181 

Climbers 96 

Cold  frames 126-128 

Colony- house  for  poultry ^  .    242 

Concrete  walks  and  drives 82 

Corn,  sweet 230-231 

Cows. 257,  264 

breeds  of 259-260 

Cultivators 131 

Currants 202 

varieties  of 204 

pests 204-205 


PAGE 

j  Dairying 257-260 

Deciduous  trees 75~77.  87 

December,  routine  work  for.. 3 15-3 17 

Decorating  home  grounds 78 

Drainage 18-19 

Drives 80-82 

Dwarf  apple-trees 154-155 

Eggs 241,  252,  254 

Equipment  for  fruit-growing   131-134 
Evergreens 75~76,  86,  89 

February,  routine  work  for.  .275-280 

Feed  for  cows 258 

Fences 97 

Ferns 106 

Fertilizing 125-126,  191,  239 

Fires,  wood 69 

Flower  garden,  the no 

Flowers  upon  the  lawn 102 

Fodder 257 

Fruit  growing 130-155 

Fruit  trees 88 

in  turf 123—124 

Furnace  heat 70 

Garden,  the 117—129 

plans  for 119-121 

Gardening  as  a  business 15 

Glass  structures 217-218 

Gooseberries 205-206 

Grading 79 

Grafting 144-147 

Grapes 182-197 

cuttings 183 

girdling 193 

pruning 187-190 

marketing 192-193 

varieties 192 

pests 194-197 

Grasses 99 

Greenhouses 218 

Gutters 35 

Hardy  herbaceous  perennials  113-115 

Harnesses '. 266 

Harrows 131 

Heating 69-72 

Hedges 93 

Herbaceous  plants no 

Hives 268 

Hoes 125,  132 

Home-seeking 16-30 

Honey 268 

Horse  power 134 

Horse,  the  family 264-266 

Hot-beds 126-128,  218 

Houses  of  wood 5S~57 

of  stone,  brick,  or  cement.  .      58 
Hybrids 180 


319 


320 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Incubators.  .    .                             244    248 

PAGE 

Quinces  169-172,  243 
marketing  171 
varieties  171 
pests  172 

gakes---.  33.  132 
Raspberries                                    198—202 

January,  routine  work  for.  .  .  .  270-274 
July,  routine  work  for  295-300 
June,  routine  work  for  292-295 

Keeping  apples  150 
Labor,  contract  v«    day                       53 

Rhubarb  236-237 
Roads  25-26,  79-81 

Ladder  155 

Land,  suitable  for  growing.  .  .  .    20-22 
Lawn-mowers  102 

Roofing  36 
Roofs  35 

Lawns  98-110 
Lettuce.  ...                                            23  1 

Sand                                            65    67    68 

Location  of  houses  53 
Lumber  56 

Sanitation  37 

Manure  .                     44  126 

Scratching-sheds  43~44 
September,  routine  work  for.  .303-308 

March,  routine  work  for.  .  .  .    280-285 
Market  gardening  216—240 

Shingles  36,  47 
Shingling  walls  of  old  buildings.  .      46 
Shrubs  84,  89-90,  94-95 
Sills  32-35 
Soil  118,  130,  131,  136 
162,     170,     173,     205,     206,     217 

Markets  23—25 

May,  routine  work  for  288-291 
Melons  231—232 

Milking                                                   258 

Milk  supply  261-262 
Mixed  plantings  118-122 

Nectarines..                                  180—181 

Squashes  237-239 
Stables  44,  257-258,  265 
Stone  houses  61 

Nests  253—254 

November,  routine  work  for  .    311-315 

October,  routine  work  for.  .  .    308-31  1 
Old  trees,  how  preserved.  ...    77,  157 

Storing  fruit  and  vegetables.  ...    134 

Strawberries  206-215 
planting                                 207—208 

Orchard,  cost  of  139-141 
Outbuildings  39 

Packing  fruit.  .  .                                    134 

harvesting  210—213 

varieties  213-214 
pests                                       214—215 

Summer-houses  95 
Swarming  of  bees  269 

Terraces  99 
Tile  81 
Tool-house,  tool-room  39-42 
Tools  40-42,  1  24,  144 
Training  trees  170 
Trees                              73,  76,  77,  78,  84 

Paint  brushes                                         5  1 

Painting  47-49 
Paints.  ...                                           49   50 

Peaches  137,  161,  165,  243 
harvesting  165 
marketing  166 
varieties  166 
pests  167-168 
Pears  137,  156-161,  243 

88,    123,    137,    141-143,    162,    165 
Turnips  240 

ripening  158 
shipping.  .                                      158 

Underdraining  80 

Vegetable  garden  1  29 
Vegetables,  testing  new  varieties.    122 

varieties  158 
pests.  .  .                                            ICQ 

Peas  2*"i—2iA 

Perennials  106-109,  113-114 
Piazzas  38 

Verandas  38 

Vineyards  183 

Walks  79-8i 
concrete  82,110 
Walls  97 
Water  Supply  36-38,  55 

Plans  for  garden  .  .                       1  1  9—  121 

Planting  trees                                  84  87 

Plows                                                      131 

Plums  137    172—178    243 

marketing  '  176 
varieties...                           176—178 

pests                                       174   176 

Weed-killer  124 
Weeds  82 
Wild  flowers  105 
Window-  boxes  116 
Windows  55 

Porches                                                    3  8 

Potatoes...                                   234   236 

Poultry                                            128   129 

Poultry-houses  43~44,  242-247 
keeping                                   247   256 

Pruning  74,  94,  96 
137,       142-150,       163-164,       173 
181,       187-100.       I9Q-200.       201 

dormer  38 
Wooden  houses  55~57 
Woodland...                       26 

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